%  ITearning  unts  ^abor.  % 

I  LIBRARY  I 

W  OF  THE  W 

I  University  of  Illinois.! 

^         CI.ASS.  BOOK.  VOIvUMB.  ^ 

#  '^...O...?*   .X^.2.o^.tD  # 

%       Books  are  not  to  be  taken  from  the  Library.  ^ 

%  ^ 

^  Accession  No.   ^ 


CENTRAL  CIRCULATION  AND  BOOKSTACKS 

j  The  person  borrowing  this  material  is  re- 
sponsible for  its  renewal  or  return  before 

j  the  Latest  Date  stamped  below.  You  may 
be  charged  a  minimum  fee  of  $75.00  for 
each  non-returned  or  lost  item. 

Theft,  mutilation,  or  defacement  of  library  materials  con  b« 
cau$e»  for  student  disciplinary  action.  All  moterials  awnftd  by 
the  University  of  Illinois  Library  are  the  property  of  the  State 
of  Illinois  and  are  protected  by  Article  16B  of  lllinoh  Criminal 
Law  and  Procedure. 

TO  RENEW,  CALL  (217)  333-8400. 
University  of  Illinois  Ubrary  at  Urbono-Chompaign 


AUG  0  2  2001 


When  renewing  by  phone,  write  new  due  date 
below  previous  due  date.  L162 


r 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2015 


https://archive.org/details/aidstoenglishcomOOpark 


^iwOVERTISEMENT  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 

Ti,  IS  Publishers  having  determined  to  stereotype  this  work,  the 
Author,  unwUling  that  it  should  leave  his  hands  and  be  put  into 
permanent  form  until  he  had  given  it  a  careful  revision,  and  made 
it  as  worthy  as  he  could  of  the  favor  with  which  it  has  been  receiv- 
ed, has  made  some  important  improvements  in  the  plan,  the  ar- 
rangement, and  the  materials,  by  which  he  thinks  its  value  as  an 
Aid  to  Composition  is  greatly  enhanced.  The  subject  of  Descrip- 
tion in  particular  has  been-  considerably  extended  and  enriched, 
from  sources  not  within  his  reach  in  the  original  preparation  of  the 
volume.  The  examples  and  exercises  in  various  parts  of  the  work 
have  been  much  improved  by  the  rejection  of  those  which  he  had 
borrowed  from  other  works,  and  which  had  long  been  familiar,  and 
the  substitution  of  others  more  valuable,  because  they  are  new. 
He  now  submits  the  work,  in  the  hope  that  it  will  not  be  found  un- 
worthy of  the  continuance  of  the  favor  with  which  it  has  beez> 
received. 
Grange  Street,  Boston,  June  1, 1845. 


AIDS 


TO 

ENGLISH  COMPOSITION, 

PREPARED  FOR 

STUDENTS  OF  ALL  GRADES; 

EMBRACING 

SPECIMENS  AND  EXAMPLES  OF  SCHOOL  AlTD  COLLEGE  :|XERCISEe 
AND  MOST  OF  THE  HIGHER  DEPARTMENTS  OF  ENGLISH 
COMPOSITION,  BOTH  IN  PROSE  AND  VERSE. 


By  RICHARD  GREEN  PARKER,  A.  M, 

"DImidlitm  facti  qui  coepit,  habet." 
TWENTIETH  EDITION. 

NEW  YORK: 

HARPER  &   BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS. 

1  85  4. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1845, 
By  Harper  &  Brothers, 
In  the*Clerk's  Office  of  the  Southern  District  of  New  York, 


PREFACE. 


It  would  be  presumptuous  in  any  author  to  attempt  to  give  rules,  or  to 
lay  down  laws,  to  which  all  the  departments  of  English  Composition 
should  be  subjected.  Genius  cannot  be  fettered,  and  an  original  and 
thinking  mind,  replete  with  its  own  exuberance,  will  often  burst  out  in 
spontaneous  gushings,  and  open  to  itself  new  channels,  through  which 
the  treasures  of  thought  will  flow  in  rich  and  rapid  currents.  Rules  and 
suggestions,  however,  are  not  wholly  useless.  They  encourage  the  diffi- 
dent, and  give  confidence  to  those  whose  want  of  conversance  with  ap 
proved  models  renders  it  necessary  for  them  to  rely  on  foreign  aid.  In 
the  volume  to  which  this  book  is  designed  as  a  sequel,  the  author  has 
attempted  to  render  assistance  in  the  removal  of  the  two  obstacles  which 
beset  the  youthful  writer  m  his  first  attempts  at  composition ;  to  wit,  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  ideas,  or  learning  to  thmk,  and  that  of  expressing 
them  properly  when  obtained.  There  are  those  who  profess  to  have  been 
benefited  by  the  assistance  therein  afforded.  In  this  volume  he  has  en- 
deavored to  embrace  a  wider  range  in  the  extensive  field  before  him.  He 
candidly  confesses  that  he  is  not  satisfied  with  his  own  labofs.  He  wou|^ 
have  been  better  contented  to  see  the  task  completed  by  abler  hands.  But 
as  his  labors  have  been  found  useful,  he  has  been  encouraged  to  extend 
them,  in  the  hope  that  they  wiU  prove  beneficial,  especially  to  those  who 
have  neither  the  leisure  nor  the  inclination  to  seek  in  the  wide  fields  of 
literature  for  other  and  deeper  sources  of  information.  If  the  water  in 
the  bucket  drawn  from  the  well  has  not  the  coolness  and  raciness  of  the 
fountain,  or  the  spring,  it  will  quench  the  thirst  and  cool  the  brow  of  the 
toiler,  in  his  laborious  ascent  of  the  hUl  of  science. 

With  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  this  volume  is  to  be  used,  the 
author  has  only  to  say  that  he  has  not  aimed  at  giving  a  regular  and 
systematic  course  of  instruction.  Tew  teachers  would  probably  follow 
any  path  that  might  be  pointed  out.  It  has  not  been  his  aim  to  present 
m  this  volume  a  progressive  course.  Leaving  to  the  judgment  of  those 
who  may  use  the  book  the  task  of  selecting  such  exercises  as  may  in 
their  opinion  best  promote  the  intellectual  advancement  of  those  whose 
minds  they  are  training,  he  respectfully  submits  the  volume,  in  the  hope 
that  it  may  prove  a  useful  auxiliary  in  the  difiicult  but  highly  useful  task 
of  Compositition. 

Orange  Street,  Boston,  January  1st,  1844. 


o 


CONTENTS. 


PA6B 

Preface,  '   iii 

Introduction,  •  •   iv 

I.    Objects  and  their  parts   1 

n..    Objects,  their  qualities  and  uses,   2 

III.  Objects,  their  parts,  qualities,  properties,  uses,  and 

appendages,   3 

IV.  Events,   4 

Y.    Objects  and  Events,   5 

VI.    Names,   6 

VII.    Simple  Dialogue,  or  Conversation,   7 

Vin.    Words,   15 

IX.    Of  Phrases,  Clauses,  and  Sentences,   17 

X.    Use  of  Words,  Phrases,  and  Clauses,  in  the  expan- 
sion of  an  idea,   21 

XI.    Of  the  Parts  and  Adjuncts  of  a  Sentence,   22 

XII.    Of  Sentences,   ^4 

Xin.    Of  Capital  Letters,   25 

XIV.    Of  Punctuation,   27 

XV    Derivation  and  Composition  of  Words;   34 

XVT.    Synonymes,  ^   40 

XVII.    Methods  of  Inversion  and  Transposition,   50 

XVm.    Formation  of  Compound  Sentences,  from  Simple 

ones,   58 

XIX.    Of  the  English  Language,  ^  _   61 

XX.    Periphrase,  Periphrasis,  or  Circumlocution,  Eu- 
phemism, and  Antonomasia,   63 

XXL    Tautology  and  Catachresis,   69 

XXII.    Pleonasm,  Verbosity,  and  Redundancy,   71 

XXIIL    Variety  of  Expression,.^  ^   73 

XXIV,    Translation,  or  Conversion  of  Poetry  into  Prose,  •  76 

XXV.    Anagrams,   86 

XXVI.  Of  Grammatical  Propriety,  •   88 

XXVII.  On  the  selection  of  Words  and  Expressions,   92 

vCXVIIL    Of  the  Construction  of  Sentences,   93 

XXIX.    Of  Clearness,  •    94 

XXX.    Of  Unity,   95 

XXXL    Of  the  Strength  of  a  Sentence,   97 

XXXIL    Of  the  Harmony  of  a  Sentence,   99 


CONTENTS. 

TAGS 

XXXni    Onomatopoeia,  or  Sound  adapted  to  tlie  Sense,  •  104 

XXXIV.    Definition  and  Distinction,  or  Difference,  

XXXV.    Analogy,  Ill 

XXXVI.    Fisfurative  Language,  ;  •  • ; 

XXXVn.    Translation  of  Plain  into  Figurative  Language,  115 

XXXVHL    Rules  relating  to  Metapliors,;  

XXXIX.    Prosopopoeia,  or  Personification,  

XL.  .Simile,  or  Comparison,  ' '  * 

XLI.  'Antithesis,   ^28 

XLIL  Parallel,  

XLIIL    Allegory,  •  •  136 

XLIV.    Apologue  and  Fable,  

XLV.    Riddle,  or  Enigma,  

XL VI.  Charade,  

XLVn.  Hyperbole,  

XLVin.  Apostrophe,  

XLIX.   Interrogation,  '  ]  

L.    Repetition,   145 

LI.    Exclamation,  '" 

Ln.    Vision,  '  "" 

Lin.    Climax,   _  -^^9 

LIV.    Anticlimax,  ' '  

LV.    Allusion,  150 

LVI.   Irony,    "  '  ^^51 

LVII.    Alliteration,  1  5S 

LVIH.    Paraphrase,  or  Explanation,  

LIX.    Outlines  m  Narrative,  ^^7 

LX.    Connected  Narrative  from  scattered  Facts,  

LXI.  Narration  expanded,  *  * 

LXn.  Description,  ;  •  ; '  • ^ 

r  Narration  and  Description  united,    y  i 

lIiv:  E^IstXyCorresponince,  or  Letter  Wntm^  183 

LXV.  Regular  Subjects,   ^03 

LXVL  Themes,  '  211 

LXVIL  Abstracts,  ;  *.   213 

r>XVni.  Essays  from  Abstracts,  

LXIX.  Divisions  of  a  Subject,  

LXX  Amplification,  *  * /  ; ;  ^ 

LXXI.  Illustration  of  a  Subject,  •  

LXXn.  On  the  Treatment  of  a  Subject,   ^ 

LXXin.  Generalization  of  a  Subject,  * 

LXXIV.  Poetry  and  Versification,  

LXXV.  Vocabulary  of  Rhymes,  .  282 

LXXVI.  Epithets,  *.'.*.'.  '.*.  '/..  284 

LXXVU.  iivric  Poetry,   ooq 

LXXVni  Pastoral  and  Elegiac  Poetry,   289 

LXXIX.  Of  the  higher  species  of  Poetry,  [[[[[^Hl 

LXXX.  Style,  


CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

LXXXI.    Directions  to  Students  in  revising  and  correct- 
ing their  Compositions,   303 

LXXXII.    Marks  used  by  Printers  in  correcting  the  Press,  310 

LXXXin.    Technical  Terms  relating  to  Books    313 

LXXXIV.    Obituary  Notice,   314 

LXXXV.    Critical  Notice,   317 

LXXXVI.    Criticism,   318 

LXXXVn.    Biographical  Sketch,    322 

LXXXVUr.    College  Exercises,   324 

LXXXIX.    Essay,  Treatise,  Tract,  Thesis,   329 

XC.    College  Poem,   336 

XCL    Dissertation,    338 

XCn.    Disquisition,   341 

XCni.    Discussions,   344 

XCIV.    Disputations,   355 

XCV.    Orations,   361 

XCVI.    Bowdoin  Prize  Dissertation,    381 

XCyil.    On  the  Composition  of  a  Sermon,  •  •  •  •  390 

XCVni.    Subjects  for  Composition  of  all  kinds.   399 

XCIX.   List  of  Works  consulted  in  the  preparation  of 

this  Volume,   419 

C.    Index  of  Subjects  noticed  in  this  Work,  420 


INTRODUCTION. 


CosiPOSiTiON  is  the  art  of  forming  ideas,  and  expressing  them  in  lan- 
guage. Its  most  obvious  divisions,  with  respect  to  the  nature  of  its  sub- 
jects, are  the  Narrative,  the  Descriptive,  the  Didactic,  the  Persuasive,  the 
Pathetic,  and  the  Argumentative.  With  regard  to  its  form  or  style,  it 
may  be  considered  as  concise  or  diffuse,  as  nervous  or  feeble,  as  dry, 
plain,  neat,  elegant  or  flowery,  as  simple,  or  affected,  as  cold  or  vehement, 
as  barren  or  luxuriant ;  and  its  essential  requisites  are  clearness,  unity, 
strength  and  harmony.  As  it  is  strictly  a  mental  effort,  its  foundation 
must  be  laid  in  a  disciplined  and  cultivated  mind,  in  the  exercise  of  vigor- 
ous thought,  on  reading  and  observation,  and  an  attentive  study  of  the 
meaning  and  the  force  of  language.  The  proper  preparation  for  its  suc- 
cessful performance  should  be  laid  in  a  diligent  attention  to  the  rules  of 
grammar,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  rhetoric,  and  a  suc- 
cessful application  of  the  maxims  of  logic ;  for  logic  must  direct  us  in 
the  selection  of  ideas,  rhetoric  must  clothe  them  in  a  suitable  dress,  and 
grammar  must  adapt  the  dress  to  the  peculiar  form  of  the  idea.  In  the 
following  pages  an  attempt  is  made  gradually  to  introduce  the  student  to 
the  several  departments  of  English  composition  by  examples  and  exer- 
cises, with  such  observations  and  illustrations  as  may  appear  to  be  neces- 
sary for  an  intelligent  comprehension  of  its  rules  and  principles.  The  early 
lessons  are  simple  and  easily  performed,  but,  in  the  course  of  the  work, 
suggestions  will  be  found,  which,  it  is  thought,  vnll  be  useful  to  those  by 
whom  composition  is  not  regarded  as  a  task. 

Of  the  importance  of  attention  to  the  subject  of  composition  thus 
much  may  be  said ;  that  there  are  few  individuals,  in  any  station  of  life, 
to  whom  ease  and  fluency  in  Avriting  are  not  valuable  acquisitions.  All 
who  are  engaged  in  professional  or  commercial  pursuits,  and  even  the 
hardier  sons  of  labor,  whose  "  bread  is  procured  by  the  sweat  of  their 
^row,"  must  have  correspondence  to  manage,  or  written  statements  to 
furnish,  requking  at  once  accuracy  and  despatch ;  and  therefore  the  fa- 
cility which  jiractice  alone  can  impart,  in  the  arrangement  of  tlieii 
thoughts,  and  a  ready  and  correct  expression  of  them,  is  an  attainment 
exceedingly  desirable.  In  the  language  of  a  late  transatlantic  Avriter 
then,  it  may  boldly  be  asserted,  that  "  No  acquirement  can  equal  that  of 
composition  in  giving  a  power  over  the  material  of  thought,  and  an  apt- 


it 


INTRODUCTION. 


ness  in  all  matters  of  arrangement,  of  inquest,  and  of  argumentation." 
"Writing,"  says  Lord  Bacon,  "makes  a  correct  man;"  and  tlie  author  of 
the  Essay  on  Criticism  asserts,  that 

"  True  grace  in  writing  comcs  from  art,  not  chance. 
As  they  move  easiest  who  have  learnt  to  dance." 

"He  that  begins  with  the  calf,"  says  Mr.  Locke,  " may  carry  the  ox , 
but  he,  that  wiU  go  at  first  to  take  the  ox,  may  so  disable  himself  as  not 
to  be  able  to  take  the  calf  after  that."  On  the  same  principle,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  an  attention  to  the  subject  of  composition  should  be  com- 
menced early  in  life.  Exercises  of  a  simple  character  prepare  the  mind 
for  higher  exertion;  and  readiness  and  facility  in  the  lower  departments 
of  writing  enable  the  student  to  apply  himself  without  reluctance  to  those 
mightier  efforts  by  which  the  progress  of  intellectual  culture  is  most  rap- 
idly advanced. 

The  words  of  Horace  may  here  be  recommended  to  particular  attention : 

''Sumite  materiam  qui  scribitis  asquam 
"Viribus." 

Or.  in  the  translation  of  Mr.  Erancis : 

"  Examine  well,  ye  writers,  weigh  with  care, 
Wli&t  suits  your  genius,  what  your  strength  ■will  bear. ' 


AIDS 


TO 

ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


OBJECTS  AOT)  THEm  PAHTS. 

^r^f  ^®  writing  composition  is  to  obtain 

Ideas.  1  he  second  is  the  proper  expression  of  the  idea  when 
Obtained.  To  acquire  ideas,  it  is  necessary  to  cultivate  habits 
ot  observation;  to  use  the  eyes  not  only  in  noticing  entire 
objects,  but  also  their  different  parts;  to  consider  their  quali- 
ties  uses,  operations,  and  effects;  together  with  their  relation 
to  other  things  The  mmd  employed  in  such  processes  ac- 
quires materials  for  its  own  operations,  and  thoughts  and  ideas 
arise  as  it  were  spontaneously. 

nnS"".?!  '\T''^^f  composition,  therefore,  it  is  pro- 
po^<id  that  the  student  be  required  to  enumerate  the  parts  of 
some  visible  object,  accordmg  to  the  foUowing 

Examjple. 


Its 

The  inside. 
The  outside. 
The  doors. 
The  entry, 
The  rooms. 
The  ceiling, 
The  walls. 


A  HOUSE. 

parts  are 

The  wainscot, 
The  stairs. 
The  fire  places, 
The  mantel. 
The  chimney. 
The  closets, 
The  kitchen, 
I 


The  parlors  or 

drawing  rooms, 
The  wash  room. 
The  bathing  room, 
The  inner  doors, 
The  wood  shed. 
The  out  buildings. 


2 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Exercises, 


In  a 


similar  manner  enumerate  the  rarta  of  the  foBomng  objeeW. 


carriage. 

ship. 

church. 

tree. 

map. 

horse. 


A  sheep. 
A  cat. 

A  landscape. 
A  school-room. 
A  watch. 
A  clock. 


A  bo:)k. 
A  kite. 
A  cow. 
A  goat 
A  dog. 
A  picture. 


OBJECTS,  THEIR  QUALITIES  AOT  USES. 
The  Darts  of  a  visible  object  having  been  noticed,  the  next 
Step  to  betaken  is  the  enumeration  of  its  quaht.es  and  uses 
according  to  the  foUowuig 


Example. 


Glass  ; 


It  is  hard, 
solid, 


smooth, 

bright, 

transparent, 

brittle, 

cold, 

tasteless. 


inodorous, 

colorless, 

heavy, 

uninflammable, 

durable, 

stiff, 

inflexible, 
water  proof, 


insoluble, 

dry, 

fusible, 

thick  or  thin, 

long, 

short, 

wide, 

useful. 


Its  uses : 

For  windows  to  admit  light: 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


3 


JExercises, 

In  the  same  manner  enumerate  the  qualities  of  the  following  objects. 


Wood.  Sugar.  A  lamp. 

Iron.  Salt.  Ivory. 

Lead.  Sponge.  A  pin. 

Silver.  A  desk.  A  chair. 

Gold.  Wool.  A  table. 

A  feather.  Cotton.  A  penknife. 

A  pen.  Wax.  A  quill. 

Water.  Whalebone.  An  inkstand. 

Leather.  A  horn.  Ice. 

Paper.  Chalk.  Snow. 


in. 


OBJECTS,  THEIR  PAETS,  QUALITIES.  PROPERTIES,  USES. 
AND  APPENDAGES. 

The  parts,  properties,  and  uses  of  visible  objects  having 
now  been  considered,  the  two  processes  may  be  united,  in  the 
consideration  of  the  parts,  qualities,  properties,  uses  and  ap. 
pendages,  as  in  the  following 


^Example. 

A  Pen  consists  of  the  quill,  pith, 
shaft,  nib, 
feather,  shoulders, 

laminae,  skin, 

Qualities,  The  quiU  is  transparent,  smooth, 

round  or  bright, 

cylindrical,  hard, 

hollow,  glossy. 

The  shaft  is  opake,  white, 

angular,  stiff. 

The  pith  is  white,  porous, 

spongy,  elastic, 


surfaces, 
groove, 
inside,  and 
outside. 

elastic, 
yellowish, 
horny, 
tough. 

hard, 
grooved 

soft, 
light. 


• 


4  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

Zi  even  those  who  are  dead,  have  seen  or  said. 

JSxercises* 


Enumerate  the  pa.ts,  qualities,  and  uses  of  &e  following  objeeta 
^  .......  AU^e. 

i  ^        .  ^i^fhand. 
A  baU. 
A  kite. 

A  dressing-case. 
A  sofa. 
A  chair. 
A  lock. 
A  key. 


A  book. 
A  house. 
A  tree. 
A  table. 
A  bureau. 

The  contents  of  a  box. 
A  secretary. 
A  plate. 
A  barrel. 
A  lamp. 
A  candlestick. 


The  arm. 
The  foot. 
The  eye. 
The  ear. 
The  nose. 
The  mouth. 
The  human  face 


IV. 

EVENTS. 


mx.    w  M  nf  tHs  lesson  is  to  teach  the  learner  to  describe 

i.ia'sr~^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^  "  ^"^^^ 

-^H^rniahedirect^^^ 

relate  it  to  P^l^^^^^^  "effl^  see  whether  any  of 
ZZTJ^::^^^^^^  has  used  the  very 

words  which  he  intended  to  use. 

Example. 

On  returning  ho.e  yesterday  I  saw  a  -^^ 


Airs  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


5 


in  the  mire,  and  the  poor  animal  was  exerting  all  his  strength 
to  drag  tbe  heavy  load,  while  the  cruel  driver  was  mercilessly 
beating  the  unfortunate  creature  because  he  could  not  proceed. 

In  a  similar  manner,  the  learner  may  describe  the  following  events : 

The  meeting  of  a  beggar  in  the  street. 

The  overturn  of  a  carriage. 

The"  passing  of  a  procession. 

The  sailing  of  a  ship. 

The  catching  of  a  fish. 

The  capture  of  a  bird. 

The  raising  of  a  kite. 

A  fire. 

The  raising  of  a  building. 


V. 

OBJECTS  AND  EVENTS. 

The  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  accustom  the  learner  to  com- 
bine the  results  of  the  preceding  lessons. 

The  same  directions  should  be  given  to  him  as  are  present- 
ed in  the  last  lesson ;  and  it  will  be  proper  to  enforce  the 
directions  with  regard  to  the  spelling,  and  the  proper  use  of 
wordsj  in  every  exercise. 

Example, 

As  my  brother  was  riding  in  the  country,  he  saw  a  beauti- 
ful, large  house,  painted  white,  with  green  blinds.  In  the- 
front  of  the  hoiise  was  a  small  flower-garden,  and  the  bright 
tulips,  all  in  full  bloom,  presented  a  brilliant  show.  The  rose 
bushes  were  not  yet  in  flower ;  but  the  lily  of  the  valley  was 
dropping  its  modest  head,  while  it  perfumed  the  air  with  its 
delicious  fragrance.  At  the  back  of  the  house  were  a  num- 
ber of  fruit  trees,  in  full  blossom,  among  which  was  the  peach 
tree,  with  its  beautiful  pink  flowers.    Some  boys  were  seen 


6 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


clustering  around  a  willow  near  the  brook,  busily  engaged 
with  their  knives.  One  was  cutting  the  smal  leaves  and 
scion^  from  a  large  branch,  which  he  had  just  taken  from  the 
tree  for  a  whip,  while  another  was  bu.dly  engaged  m  making 
a  whistle.  As  my  brotiier  approachc-.d  the  house,  the  boys, 
mistaking  him  for  the  owner,  immediately  scampered  away; 
some  hiding  themselves  among  the  bushes,  while  the  more  ac- 
tive leaped  over  the  high  stone  wall,  to  escape  being  caughL 
It  appeared  that  these  boys  were  truants  from  a  neighboring 
school-house,  and  the  little  rogues  were  ^^^'^^''}^  ."^flP^ 
being  caught  in  trespassing  upon  private  ground,  but  hkewi.e 
lest  they  should  be  carried  into  the  presence  of  their  master, 
to  be  corrected  for  playing  the  truant. 

Exercises. 

In  the  same  manner  the  learner  may  describe  the  following  objects  and 

events ; 

Boys  fishing  from  a  bridge. 

Girls  dressing  their  dolls. 

A  tree  blown  down  by  a  tempest. 

Bov  driving  cows  or  sheep  to  pasture. 

TalSoSdness,  biting  passengers  in  the  street. 

A  lion  elerihant,  or  tiger  broken  loose  from  its  cage.   

A  menagerie,  with  the  postures  and  employments  of  the  wild  anmials. 

A  museum,  with  dancing  puppets. 

A  public  concert.        _  ,  .  ^  „ 

An  exhibition  of  paintmgs  and  statuary. 


NAMES. 

The  obiect  of  this  exercise  on  names,  is  to  prepare  the 
student  for  a  f  ture  exercise  on  definitions  How  it  is  to  be 
performed  will  be  readily  seen  from  the  following 

Examples. 

What  is  the  name  v>Uoh  is  applied  to  fake  or  undeserved 
praise  ? 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


7 


Answer.  Flattery. 

By  v;hat  name  do  we  call  the  delaying  of  that  which  we 
know  cannot  be  finally  escaped  or  avoided  ?  ' 
Answer,    Procrastination.  ' 

By  what  name  do  we  designate  that  animal  which  has  two 
horns,  a  long  tail,  and  cloven  feet,  and  that  affords  beefj  butter, 
and  cheese  ? 

Answer.    The  Cow. 

By  what  name  do  we  designate  the  restraint  of  appetite 
and  passion  ? 

Answer.  Temperance. 

Exercises, 
What  name  is  given  to  the  reverence  of  God  1 

What  name  is  applied  to  an  effort  of  genius  and  art,  producing  an 
association  of  exalted  and  brilliant  ideas  in  language  harmoniously 
Arranged  ? 

A  general  coincident  feeling  between  two  persons  ? 
Habitual  inactivity  both  of  mind  and  body  ? 

That  tranquil  state  of  mind  in  which  the  agitations  of  anxiety  and  dis- 
appointment are  no  longer  felt  'i 

That  state  of  mind  which  suffers  no  dismay  from  danger? 
The  dissolution  of  corporeal  existence  1 

The  resolution  to  persist  in  any  uadertaking  that  has  been  commenced  ' 
The  time  after  sunset  ? 

That  God  is  present  every  where,  and  that  he  knows  all  things 
A  habit  of  being  pleased  1 


vn. 

SIMPLE  DIALOGUE,  OR  CONVERSATION. 

^  Young  persons  are  seldom  at  a  loss  for  topics  of  conversa- 
tion, when  left  unrestrained  to  themselves.  But  as  soon  as 
they  are  required  to  write  what  is  called  a  composition,  they 
feel  at  a  loss  what  to  say.  This  arises  from  no  inability  to 
form  ideas,  nor  from  want  of  words  to  express  them  ;  but 
rather  from  a  vague  apprehension  that  something  is  required 
of  them,  which  they  have  never  done  before  ;  and  to  which 
they  know  not  how  to  address  themselves.  The  cultivation 
of  the  habits  of  observation,  to  which  allusion  has  already 


8  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

been  made  in  the  first  exercise,  wiU  help  them  wholly  out  of 
the  difficulty;  especiaUy,  if  they  be  informed,  that  the  art  ot 
writino-  is  nothing  more  than  the  art  of  expressmg  with  the 
hand,  In  signs  which  present  themselves  to  the  eye,  that, 
which  with  their  voice,  they  convey  to  the  ears_  ot  others. 
In  other  words,  that  in  their  early  attempts  at  writmg  compo- 
sition, they  may  wi'ite  down  in  letters,  what  they  would  say 
to  their  companions  in  their  common  conversations.  ^ 

To  cultivate  the  habits  of  observation,  the  following  dia- 
logue, from  the  pen  of  Dr.  Aikm,  is  presented;  ^vith  the 
recommendation  that  it  be  read  to  the  young  student,  or  that 
he  be  required  to  read  it  carefuUy,  m  order  that  he  may 
learn  to  use  his  eyes  aright,  and  attentively  observe  what 
passes  before  them. 

THE  TUTOE  AND  HIS  PUPILS. 
Eyes  and  no  Eyes;  or,  the  Art  of  Seeing. 

"Well  Eobert,  where  have  yon  been  walking  this  af tendon  ?  "  said  a 
mtnr  to  one  of  his  pupils,  at  the  close  of  a  hohday.  .  .  -n 

foSt  IhaTe?eeS  to  Broom-heath,  and  so  round  by  the  wintoll 
upoB  Camp-mouBt,  and  home  through  the  meadows  by  the  nver  side. 

Tutor    Well,  that  is  a  pleasant  round.  •         •  i„ 

m^t.  I  ^hiught  it  very  dull,  Sir ;  I  scarcely  met  with  a  smgle  per 
son    I  would  much  rather  have  gone  along  the  turnpike  road. 

r,rfor  Why  if  seeino-  men  and  horses  was  your  object  you  would, 
ind^fd  harden  better  entertained  on  the  high-road.   But  did  you 

''iS?^  We  set  out  together,  but  he  lagged  behmdin  the  lane,  sol 

''^.t'^'^hat'OT       He  would  have  been  company  for  you. 

0  hels  so  t^edious,  always  stopping  to  look  at  this  thing  ana 
that^   I  wou  d  rather  walk  alone.    I  dare  say  he  is  not  got  borne  yet. 

T«far    Here  he  comes.    Well,  WiUiam,  where  have  you  been  ? 

mmam  0.  the  pleasantest  walk !  I  went  aU  over  Broom-heath  and 
so  up  to  The  mill  at  the  top  of  the  hill,  and  then  down  among  the  green 

"  r'foT^  £t  is' J?st  "wound  Eobert  has  been  taking,  and  he 

-l&^1lt!j^^^r?^m^^  that  did 

not  SSme  and  rhave  brought  home  my  handkerchief  fun  of  cun 

Suppose,  then,  you°give  us  an  account  of  what  amused  you 
so  much    I  fancv  it  will  be  as  new  to  Robert  as  to  me. 

i  will  do  it  readilv.  The  lane  leading  to  the  heath,  yon 
hnJl  s  close  a^  sandy,  so  I  did  not  mind  it  much,  but  made  the  best  of 
«w  w.v    However  iVpied  a  curious  thing  enough  m  the  hedge.  It 

qmte  different  from  the  tree  itself.   Here  is  a  branch  of  it. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  9 

2  Wor  Ah !  this  is  a  mist  letoe,  a  plant  of  great  fame  for  the  use  made 
Ot  It  by  the  Druids  of  old  it  their  religious  rites  and  incantations.  It 
bearsaveryshmv  white  berry,  of  which  birdlime  maybe  made,  whence 
the  Latin  name,  Viscus.  It  is  one  of  those  plants  which  do  not  gi-ow  in 
the  ground  by  a  root  of  their  own,  but  fix  themselves  upon  other  plants : 
whence  they  have  been  humorously  styled  parasitical,  as  being  hano-ers 
on,  or  dependents.  It  was  the  mistletoe  of  the  oak  that  the  Draids  par- 
ticularly honored.  ^ 

William.  A  little  farther  on,  I  saw  a  green  woodpecker  fly  to  a  tree 
and  run  up  the  trunk  like  a  cat.  x-  j  co 

r«tor.  That  was  to  seek  for  insects  in  the  bark,  on  which  they  live. 
They  bore  holes  with  their  strong  bills  for  that  purpose,  and  do  much 
damage  to  the  trees  by  it.  r  j 

William.    What  beautiful  birds  they  are  !  • 

lish^"a^rot^^^ '  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^""^^  "^^^^^ 

William.    When  I  got  upon  the  open  heath,  how  charming  it  wasl 

hn.f.?'/f^Ti.  P^°^P^^^  °"  ^^ery  side  so  fre?  and  un 

bounded !  Then  it  was  all  covered  with  gay  flowers,  manv  of  which  1 
had  never  observed  before.  There  were  at  least  three  kinds  of  heath 
(I  have  got  them  m  my  handkerchief  here,)  and  gorse,  and  broom,  and 
bell-flower  and  many  others  of  aU  colors,  of  which  I  will  beg  you  pre 
sently  to  tell  me  the  names.  ^i^. 
Tutor.    That  I  will,  readily. 

William.  I  saw,  too,  several  birds  that  were  new  to  me.  There  was 
Ir^lt  J  0^6' of  the  size  of  a  lark,  that  was  hopping  about  some 

Kil        '  ^^^^^«^^«flew,he  showed  a  great  deal  of  white  above 

Inr^l" 7^^\        ^  wheat-ear.    They  are  reckoned  very  delicious 

I^?nt,-P=  f  '      .  '^"^"u  ""P^"^  Sussex,  and  some  other 

counties,  in  great  numbers. 

h^^fir:  "^^^"J  '""^^  ^  ^^""^  ?^  lapwings  upon  a  marshy  part  of  the 
heath,  that  amused  me  much.  As  I  came  near  them,  some  of  them  kept 
flying  round  and  round,  just  over  my  head,  and  crying  pewit  so  distinc't- 
I^.^'n?  :;^gh%^l«^,o«t/a"cy  they  spoke.  I  thought  I  should  have  ca^ 
ZhL  7'  r  ¥  broken,  and  often 

tumbled  close  to  the  ground;  but,  as  I  came  neal-,  he  always  contrived  to 

«rt?^T''V.?\-^i'  ^"""^  ^^""^  ^""^^^  i^'  then!    This  was  all  an 

fhP  ^'I^  ''i""  f.*^"^       ^^^y  f^«^  its  nest ;  for  they  build  upon 

the  baie  ground,  and  their  nests  would  easilv  be  observed,  did  thev  not 
lamlnrss.       ^"^^^^^^      intruders,  by  their  loud  cries  and  counterfeit 

nSl^""'-  ^  "^i'^  ^  Sf*^  ^"^"^  he  led  me  a  long  chase,  often 

lldTp^n^  /i  piling  up  turf  for  fuel;  and  I 

turf  JTfi  "^'^^  t^"^^  n^^nnef  of  preparing  the 

tun,  ciria  ine  price  it  sells  at    They  gave  me,  too,  a  creature  1  never  saw 

ThTl~  ^'"'"''^  T'P^''  ^^'""^  ^^^y  had  just  killed,  together  Avith  its  dam. 
1  have  seen  severa  common  snakes,  but  this  is  thicker  in  proportion,  and 
ot  a  darker  color  than  they  are. 

.y^Slu^'  y^P®^^  frequent  those  turfy,  boggy  grounds  prett'? 

muai,  an^.  I  have  known  several  turf-cutters  bitten  by  them. 


10 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


n^^tr  ^d?- f  then  too.  ™.  ^'IZX^^^^ 
mount.  I  climbed  up  'VhafL  x^FOspS  /counted  fifteen 
of  the  country  round.   What  an  ''''t™^""        V  ■         t  from 

church  steeples  ;  and  I  saw  ^^y'^-^JS^'X        I  the  wind- 

the  midst  of  green  woods        p^a"'^^^  ■  Jft       lost  behind  a  ridge 

-lUetv^  wh^^^^^^^^  if 
W^S^.'^'^n^o  again,  and  take  with  me  Gary's  connt,^  map.  by 

-E?«±fend?Sgrr^^^^^^ 

epying-glass.  „ic<i  nf  fhat    Well  —  a  thought  strack  me, 

thaT^?t;:ehLttW|lJ^^ 

=irindtreTytSie"fll—  something  of  that  sort 

jrh'rjf»:jt^^^^^ 

I  eau.ht  one  of  'he^tocst^^-^rvl^^^^^^^  «--y  ™- 

longed  to  catch  a  bird  that  1  saw  noveu  g  fixture  of  the  most 

and  then  darting  down            J' ™„e  color.  It  was  somewhat  less 

where  it  inhabits.  „„o+>,r.r  dalit  at  him,  for  I  never  saw  a 

WiUian,    I  must  try  to  get  ^noto ^gtt^  at  him,^.^^^^  ^^^^^^ 

ffl^gfpip?n?S    Th^ and  white  and  about  a. 

op  worms  and  insects.  cwallows  too  sporting  upon  the 

iXthe^SS^r^I^IteTeS^^^^^ 

«:tat  'r  e^S-^c^arylX^^-In  one  place,  wh*A 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  11 

^t!£  f      sand-bank  rose  directly  above  the  river,  I  observed  many  of 
fbem  go  m  and  out  of  holes,  with  which  the  bank  was  bored  full.  ^ 
swaltws    ThZ  Z'lr^'""^''''''.'  the  smallest  of  our  four  species  of 
makpT;;r  nif  "^°^se-color  above,  and  white  beneath.  They 

?rSt  S  and%wlp  ™?  ^^  their  young  in  these  holes,  which  run  a 

'  ?  I-  X  secure  from  all  plunderers, 

eel.  hfan  od^vf.  ^"'l'':^^  ^'^^^  ^  T""  ^"  ^  ^^oat,  who  was  catching 
end  .tUtf  1^7^  ^I'  ^-^  ^  P°'^  ^^th  broad  iron  prongs  at  thi 
This'rP  nn^L^'r*'"?!  i"^^"*'  ^"^y  'h^'-e  ^^ere  five  instead  of  three. 
Ihis  he  pushed  straight  down  into  the  mud,  in  the  deepest  parts  of  thft 
nver,  and  fetched  up  the  eels  sticking  between  the  prongs  ^ 

W^m!r       wf -f  ^^r"  It  ^s  ^^lled  spearing  of  eels. 

>,.!r  i  ^"'^  h™'  a  heroS  cami  flying  over  mv 

W  a'n^l'ln^^of'^r       TT'         "^'^^^^^  neS  furn  of  Z 

waded  "nto  Th7w  ?Iv f '^il-  i^"''  ^  ^^^^^  "^°ti°"«-  had 
waaea  into  the  water  as  far  as  his  long  legs  would  carrv  him  and  wp^ 

fnX  lif  daid\"'f  ^K^r'"'  J-king  intently  on  Sam  P^^^^ 
d?ew  it!  fi  h  whli"';!  if  ""'f^T^'  ^^^'I'"'"^  the  water,  and 
Ime  mann.r  '  Tt  1^  swallowed.  I  saw  him  catch  another  in  the 
iarae  manner.  He  then  took  alarm  at  some  noise  I  made  and  flew 
away  slowly  to  a  wood  at  some  distance,  where  he  settled.  ' 

tree  thev  cfn  tnd  ^nj,'  ^""^  ^P^"  the  loftiest 

tree  they  can  find,  and  sometimes  in  society  together,  like  rooks  For- 

S^nv^'iVenT..'  ?^^^  T'  ^^-^f- 'he  Amusement  of  hawking, 
1^  •  ^'TT'       ^  still  remaining. 

St  l^^'^^^t  wild  birds  we  have.  " 

are^trnVrlti^Ilyrall^"''  ^^^^^^^  and  spread  of  wing,  but  their  bodies 
nprST*.  ^  ^^'^^  homeward  across  the  meadows,  where  I  stop- 

Sfcfrlat  dist'alo?  1  ^  '"[f '  ^°'^?^  '^'^^^^"S^'  ^^^^^^^^  ^^P^  Ajing  about  at 
no  great  distance.    I  could  not  tell,  at  first,  what  to  make  of  them  •  for 

f^r^:r^i.^'^  'T'^'^'  thick  as  a  swarm  of  £  'and 

formed  themselves  mto  a  kind  of  black  cloud,  hoverin.^  over  the  fieM 
After  taking  a  short  round,  they  settled  again,  and  presentlv  m2  ap-Jin 
"  rtrPeX'"'-    '  ^^-y  there  were  h^dredfof  "h Jm."' 

^Mtor.     Perhaps  so;  for,  m  the  fenny  counties,  their  flocks  are  so 
numerous,  as  to  break  down  whole  acres  of  reeds  by  sTttlinf  on  them 
This  disposition  of  starhngsto  fly  in  close  swarL  ^as  ^e^^^^^^^ 
by  Homer,  who  compares  the  foe  flying  from  one  of  his  heroT  o  a  S 
of  star  mgs  retiring  dismayed  at  the  approach  of  the  hawk  ' 

W^ntam.  After  I  had  left  the  meadows,  I  crossed  the  cornfields  in 
the  way  to  our  house,  and  passed  close  by  a  deep  marl  nit  TnoVir.^ 
into  It,  I  saw  in  one  of  the  siies  a  cluster  of  Uat  I  took  to  be  sheK^^^^^ 
upon  going  down,  I  picked  up  a  clod  of  marl  which  was  ouiteftill  of 

ha.^ren  p-e^&lcZnt  ^^^^.P^l^T^Z 
e\'enTnTrowet         1?-" titles  of  shells  andTeliSTrarine  an  ma? 

mUiaJ  r^nf  '^ST.T'  ^'"^  "^"^°te  from  the  sea. 

settino-  and  T  InV^  if-^"^^  ^^^^^^^t  to  our  house  just  as  the  sun  was 
'■Z  p  tood  looking  at  it  till  it  was  quite  lost    What  a  glorious 

Sf^adeT^ll  b.    '  d  ^ith  purple  and  crimson,  and  yellow  of 

aJl*hades  and  hues,  and  the  clear  sky  varied  from  blue  to  a  fine  green  at 


12  ^IDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

the  horizon.   But  how  large  the  sun  appears,  just  as  it  sets !   I  think  it 
::r-d^^^^^  observed  the  sa.e 

apparent  enlargement  of  the  moon  at  its  rismg. 

them. 

Sw.  TJ'Jnofknow.  iaidnotcareaboutthem:,andImadethe 

The  vreceAm"  dialogue,  if  it  has  been  attentively  read,  will 
plaw/rnaHe^the  /oung  student  to  write  shnple  d^^^^^^^^ 
or  convirsations,  similar  to  that  presented  in  the  foUowing 

Example. 

DIALOSBE  BETWEEN  CHAKLES  AND  HENKT,  ABOUT  DOGS. 

Charles.    Whose  dog  is  that,  Henry,  which- 1  saw  in  your 

^^K^H^belongs  to  my  uncle,  who  bought  him  when 
he  was  very  young,  of  a  poor  boy  in  the  street.  The  boy 
applied  ver/destitate,  and  uncle  bought  rather  out  of 
Xassion  fo'r  the  boy,'than  because  he  --^f;! 

Oharks.    Is  he  good  for  any  thmg,-has  he  been  tramed^ 
ffenrv.    O  yes ;  he  is  a  very  valuable  animal.  Uncle 
u^St  .ell  him  at  any  price.    He  is  an  excellent  water- 


• 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSItlON.  13 

dog,  and  knows  more  than  many  boys  of  his  own  age.  The 
other  morning  he  was  sitting  in  a  chair  at  the  window,  from 
which  he  had  been  accustomed  to  look  at  the  boys,  as  they 
were  playmg  in  the  street,  and,  finding  that  he  could  not  see 
through  the  wmdow,  on  account  of  the  frost  on  the  glass,  he* 
applied  his  warm  tongue  to  one  of  the  panes,  and,  licking  the 
frost  from  the  glass,  attempted  to  look  out;  but,  the  spot 
which  he  had  cleared  being  only  large  enough  to  admit  one 
eye,  he  immediately  made  another,  in  the  same  manner,  for 
the  other  eye,  by  which  he  was  enabled  to  enjoy  the  sight  as 
usual.  ° 

Charles.  That  was  very  remarkable.  But  your  uncle  did 
not  teach  him  to  do  that. 

Henry.  No ;  that  was  rather  an  operation  of  instinct  than 
ot  training.  But  he  will  carry  bundles,  stand  on  two  leo-s, 
find  articles  that  are  hidden,  fetch  things  from  the  water,  ana 
IS  also  well,  trained  for  hunting, 

Charles.    He  is  a  water-dog,  then,  is  he  not  ? 

Henry.  O  yes.  He  is  very  fond  of  the  water  himself, 
but  will  not  allow  others  to  go  into  it.  Uncle  has  a  fine  situ- 
ation at  Nahant,  on  the  water's  edge,  and  many  of  his  friends 
go  there  to  bathe.  But  uncle  is  obligp^.  to  tie  up  Gtcido,  the 
dog,  when  any  one  wishes  to  bathe ;  for  the  animal  will  not 
aUow  any  one  to  go  into  the  water,  if  he  can  prevent  it. 

Charles.  That  is  very  selfish  in  him.  What  do  you  sup- 
pose is  the  reason  that  he  is  unwilling  that  others  should  en- 
]oy  a  thing,  of  which,  you  say,  he  is  himself  so  very  fond^^ 

Henry.  0,  he  has  a  good  reason  for  that,  as  well  as  for 
every  thing  else  he  does.  The  reason  is,  that,  one  day,  my 
little  brother,  George,  was  standing  on  a  kind  of  wharf,  built 
of  stones,  near  the  bathing  place,  and,  happening  to  stoop 
over  too  far  to  look  at  some  eels,  that  were  gliding  through 
the  water  below,  he  lost  his  balance  and  feU  in.  Nobody  was 
near  but  Guiio,  and  he  immediatety  jumped  into  the  water, 
and  held  George  up  by  the  collar  till  some  one  came  to  his 
assistance.  When  the  servant  man,  John,  came  to  help 
Oreorge  out  of  the  water,  Guido  had  nearly  dragged  him  to 
the  shore ;  but  he  found  it  rather  hard  work,  for  Georo-e  is 
very  fleshy,  and,  of  course,  quite  heavy;  and,  although  Guido 
has  a  good  opinion  of  himself,  and  doubts  not  his  ability 
to  drag  any  one  else  out  of  the  water,  yet  he  reasons  very 


14  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

soundly,  and  thinks  it  much  less  trouble  to  prevent  people 
from  going  into  the  water,  than  to  di'ag  them  out  when  they 

^^^ChaXT  No  wonder  that  your  uncle  values  him ;  he  is 
^certainly  a  very  valuable  dog.  ,   .      -u    +  i,?^ 

Henry.  0,  I  could  teU  you  a  hundred  stories  about  him, 
which  would  surprise  you.  The  other  day,  George  brought 
home  a  bundle  from  IViiss  Farrar's,  for  my  sister  Carohne, 
which  he  threw  down  on  a  chair  m  the  entry,  and  then  ran 
off  to  play.  Caroline  was  m  her  chamber,  and,  hearmg 
George  come  in,  spoke  to  him  from  her  room,  not  knowmg 
that  he  had  gone  out,  and  requested  him  to  bring  it  up  stairs. 
Guido  was  lying  on  the  rug  by  the  fire  m  the  parlor,  and, 
hearing  Caroline  call  for  the  bundle,  immediately  jumped  up, 
and,  t^ing  the  bundle  in  his  mouth,  carried  it  up  stairs  and 
dropped  it  at  Caroline's  feet.  t,  „ 

Charles.  I  should  be  very  happy  to  have  such  a  dog,  but 
mother  is  so  afraid  of  a  dog's  running  mad  and  bitmg  us  chil- 
dren, that  she  will  not  allow  us  to  keep  one.  ,  , 

Henry.  Father  says,  that  there  is  no  fear  of  a  dog  s  run- 
ning mad,  if  he  has  plenty  of  water.  He  says,  that  the 
reason  that  we  so  seldom  hear  of  a  dog's  runmng  mad  here  in 
Boston  is,  because  water  is  plenty  here,  and  dogs  can  always 
get  at  it,  if  they  have  once  found  their  way  to  the  Frog  Pond 
on  the  Common.  .  ,  , 

Charles.  What  is  the  name  of  that  disease  which  people 
have  who  are  bitten  by  mad  dogs  ? 

Henrv.  It  is  called  hydrophoUa,  which  is  a  Greek  word, 
and  mef ns  "  fear  of  water."  Dogs,  when  they  are  mad,  can- 
not bear  the  sight  of  water ;  they  wiU  not  drmk  ;  and  there- 
fore,  whenever  a  dog  will  drmk,  you  may  be  sure  that  f 
not  mad.  When  a  person  is  bitten  by  a  mad,  or  rabid  am- 
mal,  he  expresses  the  same  dread  of  water,  and  hence  the 
disease  is  called,  as  I  said,  hydrofaoUa.  ^ 

Charles.  I  thank  you,  Henry,  for  givmg  me  all  this  mfor- 
mation.  I  shall  tell  it  all  to  mother,  and  as  I  have  often 
heard  her  say,  that  your  father  is  a  very  sensible  man,  per- 
haps  she  may  overcome  her  fear  of  hydryphobia,  and  allow 
brother  James  and  me  to  keep  a  dog. 


AIDS  TO  ENGUlSH  COMPOSITION. 


15 


JExamples, 


In  the  same  manner  the  learner  may  write  a  simple  dialogue  ahout  the* 
following  habjects : 


cat. 
fox. 
horse, 
watch, 
dress, 
ride. 

meeting-houEfe, 
school, 
sled. 

An  evening  party. 
A  sleisrh-ride. 


A  walk. 

A  pair  of  skates. 
A  tree, 
A  kite. 
A  book. 
A  bonnet. 

An  excursion  on  the  water, 
A  lesson. 

A  new  year's  present. 
A  ^alk  about  the  city. 


A  Sunday  School  ex- 
cursion. 
A  holiday  visit. 
An  evening  party. 
A  wedding. 
A  funeral. 
A  baptism. 

The  celebration  of  an 

anniversary. 
A  visit  to  a  printing 
An'excursion  into  the  woods,  office. 


vin. 

WOEDS. 

Sentences  consist  of  words,  and  words  are  used  to  express 
thoughts  or  ideas.  The  ideas  which  they  express  depend  on 
their  connexion  with  other  words.  Sometimes  the  same  word 
will  signify  an  action,  an  object,  a  quality,  or  an  attribute. 
Thus,  in  the  sentence  "  I  shall  present  the  book  to  Charles," 
the  word  "present"  signifies  an  action.  If  I  say  "the  book 
will  then  be  a  present"  the  word  present"  will  signify  an 
object,  and  is  a  noun  or  name.  But,  if  the  sentence  be, 
"  Charles  must  be  present  when  the  book  is  given,"  the  word 
^'present"  will  signify  an  attribute,  and  is  an  adjective. 

The  proper  use  of  words,  and  the  correct  understanding  of 
them,  constitutes  one  of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  written 
langua^o^e.  It  is  therefore  highly  important  that  every  writer 
be  careful  to  use  the  proper  word  to  express  the  idea  which 
he  wishes  to  communicate ;  and  when  he  is  required  to  use  a 
word,  that  he  endeavor  thereby  to  express  no  other  idea  than 
that,  which  the  word  is  intended  to  convey. 

The  Dictionary  is  however  a  very  unsafe  guide  to  the 
proper  signification  of  words,  because  their  meaning  is  so  ma 
terially  affected  by  the  connexion  in  which  they  stand. 


16 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


There  are  many  words,  the  sound  of  which  is  exactly  si  m- 
lar  to  the  sound  of  other  words  that  are  spelt  very  different  y. 
In  using  such  .-ords  there  is  httle  danger  of  their  being  mis- 
•^.^n  tfe  one  for  the  other,  because,  as  has  just  been  s^d  we 
are  guided  by  the  connexion  in  which  they  stand.  But  in 
writing  them,  many  mistakes  are  frequently  made,  on  account 
of  the  want  ^f  eariy  attention  to  the  subject  of  orthog  aphy 
The  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  afford  an  exercise  m  the  use  of 
such  words  as  are  both  sounded  and  spelt  alike,  and  of  those 
which  have*the  same  sound  and  are  spelt  differently.  ^ 

The  remark  may  here  be  made  that  the  change  of  a  single 
letter  or  the  removal  of  the  accent,  frequently  alters  the  en- 
th-e  chamcter  of  a  word.  Thus  the  words  admse  and  prac- 
tise Xch  are  verbs,  expressing  an  acSon,  by  the  change  of 
he  letter  /to  c,  become  practice,  and  advice,  which  are  nouns. 
Again  the  words  comment',  increase^  are  ^  ^  -i^'^*^  .^T  " 
mint  in'crease,  &c.  are  nouns.  In  the  use  of  such  words,  the 
SuSenrshouW  be  accustomed  to  note  the  word,  m  his  early 
exercises,  by  the  proper  accent. 

£Jxample. 

ui  saw  with  some  surprise  that  the  Muses,  whose  busme^^^ 
was  to  cheer  and  encourage  those  who  were  toihng  up  the 
:Znt,  would  often  sing  in  the  bowers  fJlJ^^^^^^^^, 
company  those  who  were  enticed  away  at  the  call  «  the  pas 
sions.  They  accompanied  them,  however,  but  a  little  way, 
and  always  forsook  them  when  they  lost  sight  of  the  hill. 
The  tyrants  then  doubled  their  chains  upon  the  unhappy  ca^ 
fives  and  led  them  away  without  resistance,  and  almost  with 
thTir'  own  assent,  to  the  cells  of  Ignorance  or  the  mansions  of 

Johnson,  slightly  altered. 


Example  2d. 

"  The  bold  design 
Pleased  highly  those  infernal  states,  and  joy 
Sparkled  in  aU  their  eyes ;  with  full  assent 

^^^^  '''''^  "  Milton,  Paradise  Lost,  B.  2d. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


17 


"  He  hath  deserved  worthily  of  his  country ;  and  his  ascent 
(namely,  to  the  highest  honors,  S^c.)  is  not  by  such  easy  degrees 
as  those  who  have  been  supple  and  courteous  to  the  people." 

Shaksjjeare,  Coriolanus,  Act  2d,  Scene  2d. 

Exercises. 

Air,  ere,  heir;  devise,  device;  altar,  alter;  trans'fer,  transfer';  palate, 
pallet,  palette ;  fane,  fain,  feign ;  bear,  bare;  bore,  boar;  council,  counsel; 
coarse,  course;  ceiling,  sealing;  drawer,  drawer;  eminent,  imminent; 
canon,  cannon ,  freeze,  frieze,  frize ;  gnaw,  nor ;  hoard,  horde ;  horse, 
hoarse;  heal,  heel;  haul,  hall;  key,  quay;  lead,  led;  lyre,  liar;  manor, 
manner ;  mien,  mean ;  meat,  meet,  mete ;  pare,  pear ;  peas,  piece ;  prac- 
tice, practise ;  assent,  ascent ;  rite,  right,  Avrite,  wright ;  rose,  rows ;  vein, 
vain ;  rain,  rein,  reign ;  raise,  rays,  raze ;  size,  sighs ;  slay,  sleigh,  slaie ; 
their,  there ;  vale,  veil,  vail ;  white,  wight ;  way,  weigh,  whey ;  you,  yew ; 
fare,  fair;  deer,  dear;  hue,  hew;  high,  hie;  hole,  whole;  seen,  scene, 
seine ;  stile,  style ;  straight,  strait ;  waist,  waste ;  bell,  belle ;  sell,  cell ; 
herd,  heard;  wring,  ring;  aught,  ought;  lessen,  lesson;  profit,  prophet; 
2holer,  collar;  well,  (anowi,)  well,  (an  adverb);  per'fume,  perfume' ;  sub- 
ject'; sub'ject;  ob'ject,  object';  im'port,  import';  pres'ent,  present';  ab- 
sent', ab'sent;  sur'vey,  survey';  fer'ment,  ferment';  tor'ment,  torment'; 
insult',  in'sult;  com'pact,  compact';  con'cert,  concert';  dis'count,  dis- 
count'; rec'ord,  record';  ex'tract,  extract';*  bow,  beau;  berry,  bury; 
bough,  bowj  capitol,  capital ;  cask,  casque ;  censer,  censor ;  claws,  clause ; 
site,  cite,  sight;  chme,  climb;  complement,  compliment;  creek,  creak; 
flue,  flew;  blew,  blue;  fort,  forte;  frays,  phrase;  herd,  heard;  slight, 
sleight;  wave,  waive. 


OF  PHRASES,  CLAUSES,  AND  SENTENCES. 

When  names,  whether  proper,  common,  or  abstract,  are 
joined  to  their  subjects  by  means  of  connecting  words,  but 
without  a  verb,  the  collection  is  called  a  phrase.  As,  The 
extent  of  the  city ;  The  path  up  the  mountain ;  The  house 
by  the  side  of  the  river. 

If  the  connecting  word  be  a  verb,  the  assemblage  of  words 


*  There  are  about  sixty  words  in  the  English  language  that  are  thus  dia 
tinguished  by  the  accent  alone.    See  Rice's  Composition,  page  21st. 


18  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSIIION. 

is  then  styled  a  clause,  a  simple  sentence,  or  a  simple  propo- 
sition, words  of  nearly  equivalent  import.  As,  The  ci  y  is 
lar^e.  The  path  up  the  mountain  was  exceedingly  steep. 
They  are  taught  by  a  good  master.    See  Rice's  Composihon, 

^%bJt<^i^  phrase  Mid  clause  may  therefore  be  thus  de- 

"^"a  phrase  is  a  connected  assemblage  of  words,  miAo««  a 

"^"a  clause  is  a  connected  assemblage  of  words,  with  a  finite 

'^A^entence  is  an  assemblage  of  words  making  complete 

^^The  difference  between  a  phrase,  a  clause,  and  a  sentence, 
may  be  stated  as  follows :  A  sentence  alwap,  a  clause  some 
times,  but  a  phrase  never  makes  complete  sense. 

There  arn  various  kinds  of  phrases,  such  as  substan  -ye 
phrases,  parUcipial  phrases,  infimtive  phrases,  adverbisd 
phrases  prepositional  phrases,  and  interjectional  phrase  ;  so 
named  from  the  office  which  they  perform,  or  the  parte  of 

neuter,  active-tra^sitive 
act"transitive:and  passive ;  in  allusion  to  the  verbs  which 
form  them.  A  clause  which  contains  a  relative  pronoun  is 
ealkd  a  relative  clause,  and  one  containing  a  verb  in  the  sub- 
junctive mood  is  called  the  subjunctive  clause.  Specimens 
of  most  of  these  will  be  found  in  the  foUowmg  sentence: 

Neuter  clause,         .       *  „  tt-^^™  ppvcia 

SMive  phrase  rnapposum.,  .  ^^J^fJ^//^^^^^^^^ 

Active  clause         .       •       •  fled  from  the  field  of  battle : 

Relative  clause,  .       •       •       •  (^^t)  ^e  was  assassinated 

sr4?;s.  • .  ■ .  with  that  _h. 

A  sentence  usually  consists  of  three  principal  parts,  the 
eubtect  the  verb,  oxid  the  object.    As,  The  man  struck  the 


sidered  Jinite  verbs. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  19 

boy.  Here  ma7i  is  the  subject,  struck  the  verb,  and  boi/  the 
object.  Some  verbs,  however,  admit  no  object,  after  them, 
and  the  sentence  will  then  consist  of  only  two  principal  parts, 
the  subject  and  the  verb.  All  the  other  parts  of  a  sentence 
are  nierely  adjuncts,  relating  to  the  principal  parts,  and  de- 
signed to  express  some  circumstance  affecting  their  signifi- 
cation. ^  ^ 

Sentences  are  of  two  kinds,  simple  sentences  and  compound 
sentences.  ^ 

A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  nominative  and  one 
finite  verb.    As,  "  Life  is  short." 

A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more  simple  sen- 
tences, joined  together  by  one  or  more  connecting  words.  As 
^Life  IS  short,  and  art  is  long."  The  different  parts  of  a 
compound  sentence  are  called  members. 

Clauses  are  joined  together  to  form  compound  sentences  by 
conjunctions  and  relative  pronouns ;  and  phrases  are,  for  the 
most  part,  united  by  prepositions  and  adverbs;  the  latter  are 
also  frequently  employed  to  connect  minor  clauses .  with  the 
other  parts  of  a  sentence. 

Both  the  subject  and  the  object  of  a  verb  may  be  expressed 
as  follows : 

First    By  a  single  noun  or  pronoun.    As,  [Johnl  struck 
[him.J  ^ 

Secondly.    By  a  series  of  nouns  or  pronouns.    As  TDili- 
gence,  industry,  and  proper  improvement  of  time]  are  mate 
rial  duties  of  the  young. 

Thirdly.  By  a  substantive,  or  an  infinitive  phrase  or 
phrases.  As,  [The  acquisition  of  knowledge]  is  one  of  the 
most  honorable  occupations  of  youth. 

Fourthly.  By'a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  attended  by  a  minor 
or  relative  clause.  As,  [The  veil,  which  covers  from  our 
eyes  the  events  of  succeeding  years]  is  a  veil  woven  by  i^e 
nana  of  mercy.  j   -  - 

Fifthly.  By  an  entire  member  of  a  compound  sentence. 
As,  [He  who  pretends  to  great  sensibility  towards  men,  and 
yet  has  no  feeling  for  the  high  objects  of  religion,  no  heart  to 
admire  and  adore  the  great  Father  of  the  Universe]  has  rea- 
son to  distrist  the  truth  and  delicacy  of  his  sensibility. 

The  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  make  the  student  acquainted 
with  the  constituent  parts  and  members  of  sentences,  both 


20  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

Simple  and  compound.  The  exercises  that  are  subjoined  an. 
preLited  that  he  may  distinguistthe  phrases  from  the  clauses^ 
tlie  clauses  from  the  sentences,  the  imperfect  sentences  trom 
the  perfect,  and  the  simple  from  tlie  compound. 

Exercises. 

ThP  svp  of  the  oassiiK'  traveller  may  mark  them,  or  mark  them  not, 
ba^tty^  and  peaSl/in  thousands  Jver  all  the  land;  and  most  beau^ 
tifnl  do  thev  make  it  through  all  its  wide  valleys  and  narrow  glens, -its 
ow  holmren'S^ded'by  the'rocky  walls  of  ^|>"7,^-"- -IfSw 
TT^ mints  elated  with  their  little  crowning  groves  of  plane  tiees,  — it=,  jeiiow 
TrST-  itrbare  pastoral  hill-sides,  and  all  its  heathy  moors,  on  whose 
bSck  bos^m  lie  shiniSg  or  concealed  glades  of  excessive  verdure,  mhabit- 
ed  by  flowers,  and  visited  only  by  the  tar-flymg  bees.  ^ 

-Rv  Rro-uments  so  stron-.  If  we  could  imagine.  They  all  agree  m  the 
hpS-  f  ^fearful  consequences.   In  spite  of  all  admonition  and  reproof. 

Sthip.'  tegula^projeeting  rocks.  PecuMy  deat^^ 

Sts«s^eis^;i««^^^^^ 

thoughts  Aasible. 

Now  came  still  Evening  on,  and  Twilight  gray 

TTQrl  \r\  her  <;ober  livery  all  things  clad.  • 

?Se  meiancholy  days  have  com'e,  the  saddest  of  the  year, 

^^^^^m^s,  and  naked  woods,  and  meadows  brown  and  sere, 

HeapSTn  the  hollows  of  the  g--' ^J-^Stl' "e^d 
They  rustle  to  the  eddying  gust,  and  to  the  rabbit  s  tread.^  _ 
The  lower  animals,  as  far  as  we  are  able  to  judge,  are  ^^^^'^  ^  ^^J?PJJ^^ 
wiA  tie  obfects  of  their  present  perceptions;  and  the  case  is  neaily  the 
same  with  the  lower  orders  of  our  own  species.  _ 

Diligence,  industry  and  proper  improvement  of  time,  are  material 
duties  "of  the  young. 

Honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise ; 
Act  well  your  part,  there  all  the  honor  lies. 
Charitv,  like  the  sun,  brightens  every  object  on  which  it  shines. 
Though  I  speak  with  the  tongue  of  men  and  of  angels  and  have  not 
charity,  I  am  nothing. 


AIDS  TO^  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


21 


X. 

USE  OF  WORDS,  PHRASES,  AND  CLAUSES  IN  THE 
EXPANSION  OE  THE  IDEA. 

The  previous  Exercise  having  rendered  the  student  fa- 
mihar  with  the  parts  of  which  a  compound  sentence  is  com- 
posed, It  IS  now  proposed  that  he  be  exercised  in  the 
construction  of  such  sentences ;  as  in  the  following 

Example, 

"We  went. 

We  went  in  a  carriage. 

We  went  in  a  carriage  to  the  meeting. 

We  went  in  a  carriage  to  the  meeting  last  night. 

We  went  in  a  carriage  to  the  meeting  in  Church  Street  last 

We  went  in  a  carriage  to  the  meeting  in  Church  Street  last 
mgnt,  and  heard  an  excellent  sermon. 

^  We  went  in  a  carriage  to  the  meeting  in  Church  Street  last 
night  with  a  number  of  friends,  and  heard  an  excellent  ser- 
mon from  the  Rev.  Mr.  Stevens. 

r.^.?  ^^1^  ^  carriage  to  the  meeting  in  Church  Street  last 
night,  with  a  number  of  friends  from  the  country,  and  heard 
an  excellent  sermon  from  the  Eev.  Mr.  Stevens,  on  the  duties 
of  children  to  their  parents. 

^  We  went  in  a  carriage  to  the  meeting  in  Church  Street  last 
night,  with  a  number  of  friends  from  ?he  country,  and  heard 
an  excellent  sermon  from  the  Rev.  Mr.  Stevens,  on  the  duties 
of  children  to  their  parents,  delivered  in  a  very  solemn  and 
impressive  manner.  ^ 


Exercises. 


In  the  same  manner  the  stndent 
sentences : 

My  father  sailed. 
John  related. 

If  Henry  had  n^t  disobeyed. 
God  created, 
I  remember. 

Habitual  indolence  undermines. 


may  expand  the  following  simple 

They  have  done  all  they  could. 

A  cat  caught. 

A  thief  was  caught. 

The  lightning  struck. 

The  river  rolled. 

The  minister  preached. 


22 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


I  heard  Jolm  say. 

Henry  declared. 

This  book  coatains. 

A  horse  ran  away. 

Gentleness  corrects. 

The  boys  took. 

The  servants  returned. 

My  father  keeps. 

The  ship  sailed. 

The  master  came. 

A  large  number  of  peopled 

Geography  teaches. 


The  artist  painted 
I  have  purchased. 
His  parents  reside. 
The  boy  fell. 
The  girls  rose. 
A  mad  dog  bit. 
The  sheriff  took. 
The  wind  blew  down. 
The  tide  ovei-flowed. 
The  earthquake  destroyed 
The  beggar  came. 
I  heard  him  sing. 


XI. 

OF  THE  PAETS  AOT)  ADJUNCTS  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

The  natural  order  of  an  English  sentence  i^  to^^^^^^^^ 
subiect  with  its  adjuncts,  if  any,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sen- 
enfe  and  the  objective,  with  their  respective 

ndWnfter  it.    This  order,  however,  it  is  not  necessary  al- 
~  on  the  contrary  the  beauty  and  harmony 

rfXlS::  are  often  greatly  increased  by  a^^^^^^^^^^^^  W 
it  With  respect  to  the  cadence,  or  close  of  a  sentence,  care 
S;ould  be  taken  that  it  be  not  abrupt  nor  unpleasant.  In 

'TXruS  ™"dent  will  notice  the  differ- 
ent  orderln  which  the  parts  of  the  sentence  are  arranged, 

tr;bg  the  arrangen^ent        ^^^^^'^^ftrZ:  /hat 

most  harmoniously  to  the  ear,  conveys  j 
intended  to  be  expressed. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


23 


JExample 

^  The  poet  must  study  variety,  above  all  things,  not  only 
in  professed  descriptions  of  the  scenery,  but  in  frequent 
allusions  to  natural  objects,  which,  of  course,  often  occur  in 
pastorals. 

Above  all  thuigs,  the  poet,  not  only  in  professed  descriptions 
ot  the  scenery,  but  m  the  frequent  allusions  to  natural  objects 
which  occur  of  course  in  pastorals,  must  study  variety: 

Not  only  in  professed  descriptions  of  the  scenery,  but  in 
the  frequent  allusions  to  natural  objects,  whioh  occur,  of 
course,  in  pastorals,  the  poet  must,  above  all  things,  study 
vanety.*  °  *^ 

Exercises. 

IThe  student  will  notice  that  in  the  following  sentences,  the  members 
Zllr7.  11  ^  arranged.  It  is  required  of  him  to  present  them  in  such 
order  as  will  make  them  most  harmonious  and  exhibit  the  sense  to  tha 
best  advantage.] 

There  was  a  feeKng  of  strangeness,  as  he  passed  through  the  village, 
that  every  thing  should  be  just  as  it  was  when  he  left.  ^ 

In  the  trees,  there  was  a  melancholy  gusty  sound,  and  the  night  was 
shutting  in  about  it,  as  they  drew  near  the  house. 

^^^l  ^  ^l""""  P^st  nig^t'  the  morning  is  a  fit 

time  for  devotion,  but  considered  as  an  introduction  to  a  new  day 

1  o  strengthen  a  character,  which  will  fit  me  for  heaven  or  for  hell  to 
wh'SyT.r''''"'  I^''^  ^'^}  "'l'"  forgotten,  to  receive  impressions 
Tarn  ti  rettST^''  '     that  world  where  I  have  often  gone  astray. 

Temptations  which  have  often  subdued  me,  tins  day,  I  am  to  meet  • 
agamwith  opportunities  of  usefulness,  I  am  to  help  in  deciding  the  hap' 

r..?.?  T"^  save  much  time  and  trouble  in  copying,  if  the  student,  in  the 
preparation  of  his  exercises,  pursue  the  following  mithod :  placinrthe  dif! 
ferent  members  of  the  sentence  in  separate  lines  and  n£^terfng  them 
eLmpfe  ^^S^  ^^^^  by  their  nmnbers,  as  in  tLe  foUowiS 

1  We,' 

2  with  the  rest  of  our  party, 

3  notwithstanding  the  storm  and  darkness, 

4  pursued,  ' 
t*)  our  j'oumey. 


1,  4,  5,  3,  2, 

1  4   5   2  3 

1  3   4   5  2 

2  14   5  3 

2  3   14  5 

3  12  4  5 
3  2   14  5 


4  15  2  3 

4  15  3  2 

5  14  2  3 
5  14  3  2 

2  4   15  3 

3  2   1   4  5&C. 


24 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


piness  of  their  present  and  future  life,  in  mendmg  their  characters,  and  to 

influence  the  minds  of  others.  ai   •       ^ocf  nnr<?plvM 

Having  on  the  mercy  and  protection  of  the  Almighty  cast  ourselves, 
to  the  labor  and  duties  which  he  imposes,  with  new  confidence  we  should 

^°Gi^n  in  part  to  prayer,  as  of  devotional  topics  and  excitements,  a  va 

"^1:1  '^r^^^'^^'^^.e,  and  that  another  day  has  gone, 

sires^T  suffered  to  speak  plainly  and  inspect  faathfully,  conscience  will 

'^Between  the  brothers  was  no  deadly  and  deep  quarrel  and  of  this  un 
natural  estrano-ement  the  cause  neither  ol  them  couia  ten. 

In ImKSiow  that  lay  between  the  grave  of  then- father,  whoso 
shr^d  was%ly  not  yet  still  from  the  fall  of  dust  to  dust  and  of  then: 
mother  ^ong  Tince  dek  as  the  brothers  composedly  but  firmly  ^s^^^^^^ 
S-asDiL  each  others  hand,  the  minister  said,  « I  must  fulfill  the  promise 
STmade  Tyour  father  on  his  deatii  bed"  and  with  a  nleasant  coun- 

"^yteifquStTf-anorth-we^^ 

in  1?09,  an  Engfishman  in  the  serviceohhe  Dutch,  discovered  the  noble 
river  that  bears  his  name. 


xn. 

SENTENCES. 


The  following  words  constitute  a  perfect  sentence.  It  is 
required  to  arrange  them  into  sentences. 


JExample, 
1. 


A  gratitude  emotion  delightful  is. 
Gratitude  is  a  deligttful  emotion. 

2. 

Exclamation  interesting  adverse  when  circumstances  under 
Mark  Antony  this  made  "have  all  I  except  lost  away  given 

^^Malk"  Antony,  when  under  adverse  circumstances,  made 
t^^^ev^n/e^ol^tion  •  "  I  have  lost  aU,  except  what  I 
have  given  ^.wfij" 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


25 


Exercises. 

Son;ows  the  poor  pity  sufferings  of  the  and. 
graTefuf  e'ndetr         ^'^'"'^      ^^'^     P-^--^  once  its  and  itself 

Beings  best  of  God  kindest  the  is  and. 
afFecW:^^^^^^^  «^  -  g-f  parent  death 

WoTfrw?h*"'^-"'iJ^  remarkably  a  possessed  Sir  Isaac  Newton 
wo^d  as  "  '"'"^  ^^"^^^-^  --al  our:  EyTo  don^  be 

to  LVfn  order  "'^^^^^     ^«  ^^^^         and  eat  we  should. 


xmr. 

CAPITA!.  LETTERS. 

The  first  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  note,  or  any 
.ther  piece  of  writing  should  begin  with  I  capital  letter  ^ 

r"^^'  ""^^^^  days  of  the  week  should 

always  begni  with  a  capital  letter. 

The  first  word  after  a  period  should  begin  with  a  capital 

The  first  word  after  every  interrogation,  or  exclamation 
should  begin  with  a  capital  letter;  unfess  a  number  of  h  er^^ 

~-  - 

The  various  names,  or  appellations  of  the  Deity  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter;  as,  God,  Jehovah,  the  Almthtv 
H^'s'S^'^c!"^'*'^  Lord,  Providence,  the  MessiahftS 

All  proper  names,  such  as  the  names  of* persons  daces 
streets   mountains,  lakes,  rivers,  ships,  &c/and  adiectives 
derived  from  them,  should  begin  with'a  capitLl  letter  ' 
a  dir«.t  /  quotation  after  a  colon,  or  when  it  in 

a  direct  form,  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 


26  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

in  capitals.  remarkably  emphatical,  or  when  they 

JZ  ^SaTSerof  the  Uosition,  may  hegtn  .v.th 
capitals. 

Exercises. 

when  socrates  Was  Asked  ^J-^M^J^STl^s^^^^^^^ 
^-^,ST£  ]^LT,:Xwi.tBfar  pt J'a'^a  tru*,  cha.  tUe  Creation 

-.fsrets^^^^^^ 
^try:::'ra!i«in»"- 

Seven  Times  1  o.,r.i;=-hTnan  Plead  1  the  custom  Of  duellmg  1 

did  You  Kot  Arrive  soonerl  were  you  necessarily  Detained, 
daughter  of  faith,  Awake!  ^nse!  Xllume 
the  Dread  Unknown,  The  chaos  of  The  tomb. 

the  lord  My  pasture  Shall  Prepare, 
and  Feed  Id  With  A  shepherd's  care. 

father  of  all  in  EveiT  Age, 

in  Every  Clime  Adored 

by  Saint,  by  savage,  and  By  sage, 

jehovah,  jove,  or  lord 

thou  crreat  first  cause,  least  Y"^^^'?''^,' ,v 
who  AH  mv  Sense  Confined  (confinedst), 
Tkuow  But  This,  That  thou  Art  good 
and  That  myself  Am  Bhnd. 
yet  Gavest  me  In  this  Dark  Estate,  &c. 
the  language  of  Manv  of  the  european  nations  was  derived  Prom  tn« 

^ThfenglS;  and  french  ^^Ct  «e^o?S^^  consul 

'I^J^.^^^^^  by  tke  greek  philoso 

pher :  "  Know  thyself."    ^  p^.^         follow  me. 

have  you  read  roUin's  ancient  "^'^l^fj'        .  ,  Poetical  Beauties 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


27 


XIV. 


OP  PUNCTUATION.* 

ferent  pauses  and  tones  of  voice  whi^h  th^  > 
accurate  pronunciation  requirr    '  ^ 
The  characters  or  marks,  used  in  punctuation  are : 

The  Comma  t  ,    The  quotation  marks       «"  . 

The  Semicolon  J  ,    The  Diceresis 

Th!p  =    Crotchets  () 

_  The  Period  §  .  Brackets 

advertisement,  which  ran  thus  ™The  I»m„<,  "'"P'»"'"S  "f »  comma  in  the 
number,  and  have  in  general  two  sn  Jl  ^  I'  ^'"'""^  about  4030  in 
twenty  threads  of  cot! ThrcSLr'^w^^fir^ '^'^  «"«" 
nish  each  lamp  with  the  said  twenty  S'eads    but  P™<='?«''*<"<>  te- 

st=a"'Xi,ri„rrn="of''~Hf'^^^^^^^^^^^ 

"^SntlL""=ffnirl7&?~^'^  ~ 
Iheifnncuationr  ^  °^       "^"""'"S  ^™tence  is  materially  .fleeted  by 

i5S£?«~Sri^--''--ei^ 

l^;/^ah^-^hTffd^ifh!£^af^^^^^^^ 

"¥he  ",ir„;'  ''^""r^'- '  "'-rani  fSn'soZ  Sr  It' .^^'^      "^^  ^ 
re.^,L\?,;S'«pjSe°^of\Sraijh^emT:.?{;:[^ 

be  a  prophet  sent,  by  God  I  Lve  Fn^Z^.'.^  Believing  Richard  Brothers  to 
been  removed  two  wds  forw       .'£7/.l5llP"^^^?'V'    Had  the  comma 

t  The  word  comma  is  derived' from  thf^^^Pr^'  ^^''^ 
designates  a  segment,  section,  or  part  r.^ '  P'-^P^^-^^ 
In  Its  usual  acceptation,  it  signifierthe  noinf         I  ^^^^P^^^e  sentence, 
segments,  or  portions  of  a  pe?  od    If  th.Z  '  ""^'^'^  ^^"^^^"er 

Pu;,f-l?zrc2"-«^»-''"°^«"^^^^^ 

V^'^'^'^^^^^^^^  Which  mean, 

^^.e  word^„«^  -  d-ived  frona  thS  GSTan^'l^i,  and  n>.an, 


28 


AIDS  TO   ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


The  Exclamation  I  rpj^g  Brace  f 

The  Interrogation  ?  »    .    *  + 

The  Dash  -  Jhe  Acute  Accent 

ThP  Fllinsis    The  Grave  Accent  ^ 

?h:HypC  .  The  Circumflex  Accent  . 

The  Breve  -    l^^  9.^%  -  c 

The  Apostrophe  '    The  Cedilla  9 

To  these  may  be  added  the  marks  of  reference : 

The  Asterisk  *    The  Section  .  § 

The  Obelisk  t    The  Parallels  | 

The  Double^Obelisk      t    The  Paragraph  11 

RULES  OF  PUNCTUATION. 

1  When  two  or  more  words  are  connected  ^^hont  ^he 
v.o\^  being  expressed,  the  comma  suppUes^the  place  of  that  woid ,  as. 

Je  abslte'the  nominative  case  -dependent  ^ny  a^^^^^^^^^  clause, 
and  simple  members  of  sentences,  ^onnec  ed  by  woi  ds  expr^^^ 
parison,  mustbe  separated  by  commas    as    ^he  elephan^w  y 
Lwinthemenaprie,took  the  child  up  ^^thji-^r^k^^^^^^^^ 

^htT^n^' ^"^B^Sni  iXner  Srbs  ^thl^Ve^ than  a  stSled  ox  and 

'TUefolWng  words  and  phrases  and  otl-s  d^^^^^^^ 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  29 

wtwe^' '''''''  "^^^''^  she  hath  also  furnished 

vrhldi^althmi;'.!;  th  "''^  to  divide  a  sentence  into  two  or  more  part^ 

quences  of  4      il  ''^"^/^  ."^'"'^'^  ^'^''^^^  ^""^  ^he  conse- 

and  aid  "     "  ^  '^'^  '""^"^^^        P^^^  interposition 

"Benjamin."   "'u.  S/'  for"15dStTle^  "/r 

Royal  Society."  ^^la  btyie.       i.  E.  S.   f or  " Mow  of  the 

Why  do  jou  weep  ^  "  *^  Cyprians  said  to  me, 

tion  f s^ch  tTuS^^^^^^  loveTard  ^^^^^^  ^  ^^^^^  -o- 
wish,  &c.    It  is  a  so  useTlo  J  '      i   ^'  P^'^'  ^"^^^t^'  ardent 

generally  placed  aLrthf.     -     •  ^''^^^^'^  '^^^  J^eity ;  and  is 

virtue  ! "  c^^pcciea ,  as,     Wiiat  is  more  amiable  than 

great  degree  of  snrpriTe  &c  '  exmessing  ridicule,  or  a 

^parenthesis  }  is  a  sentence,  or  a  part  of  a  sentence,  inserted  withia 

with  the  hope  of  perfect  hlppiness     ^r  thP.P  ^  flatter  yourselves 

world."    But  many  respectaff  Srs  mip  no  ""^'^^^ 
may  well  be  questionedWhe^er  'he  rete^?^on  ^  °I  '  ^"^  " 

marks  of  punctuation  adds  any  tMng  to  the  c^^^^  ^T"^- 
langixage.  °  clearness  or  precision  of  written 

The  word  interro^at^on  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  and  means  .  gues 

Jiw^^"''^^^^^^    ^^^^^^^  f^'o-  the  Greek  language,  and  mean, 
3*     ,  • 


# 


30  ^IDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

another  sentence,  but  which  inay  be  omitted  without  injuring  the  sense 
anomer  beuLe     ,  ,     j  between  two  curved  hnes  hke  these ;  (  ). 

"^r~^?ot  be™vU^^  is  enclosed  are  called 

"  SomSmcs  a  sentence  is  enclosed  between  marks  Uke  these.  [  ]  which 

"Tlfc'fiiowliT  difference  is  to  he  noticed  in  the  use  of  7.0^^  and 
K,,  j  L'   Oiotchets  are  used  to  enclose  a  sentence,  or  part  of  a  sentence, 

"=7h:r;;i;ln?ira  sTa^ mark^plaSS^etw  the  parts  of  a  compound 
""it  ?l:prr;rS'sjr?  to  denote       bug  sound  of  a  vowel ;  as,  Epi- 

a  syllable  must  never  be  separated ;  as,  extraor- 
^  dmaiy,  not  ext- 

raordinary. 

The  dash  is  a  straight  mark  longer  than  a  hyphen^  thus, 

-T  !  r.vnnpv  use  of^the  dash  is  to  express  a  sudden  stop,  or  enange  oi 

The  piope   use  ot  me  aa  . .         lo.^ed  as  a  substitute  for 

'■'"tT;  bre%  (thus  lus  placed  bver  a  vowel  to  indicate  tts  short  sound, 
toter  or  several  letters ;  as,  John  si'Ts    fo    _  it  is  , 


*  The  word  ky„yn  is  derived  from  the  Greek  language  and  ->ifle^ 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  31 

called,  consist  of  four  commas  ;  two  inverted,  or  upside  down,  at  the  be- 
gnming  of  a  -^-ord,  phrase,  or  sentence  which  is  quoted  or  transcribed  from 
Bome  author  m  his  own  words ;  and  two  ofhers,  in  their  direct  position 
placed  at  the  conclusion  ;  as,  An  excellent  poet  says:  . 

"  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man." 

Sometimes  the  quotation  is  marked  by  single,  instead  of  double 
commas.  ' 

a^he  diasresis  *  consists  of  two  periods  placed  over  the  latter  of  two  vow- 
els;  to  show  that  they  are  to  be  pronounced  in  separate  svllables;  as 
Laocoon,  Zoonomia,  cooperate.  ' 

The  brace  is  employed  to  unite  several  lines  of  poctrv,  or  to  connect 
a  number  of  words  with  one  common  term ;  and  it  is  also  used  to  prevent 
a  repetition  in  writing  or  printing ;  thus, 

"  Waller  was  smooth  ;  but  Dry  den  taught  to  join 
The  varying  verse,  the  full-resounding  line, 
The  long  majestic  march  and  encrgy'^divine." 

C-e-o-u-s  ^ 

S-cXo-u-s  r      pronounced  like  shus. 
T-i-o-u-s  ) 

_  The  cedilla,  or  cerilla,  is  a  curve  line  placed  under  the  letter  c,  to  show 
that  It  has  the  sound  of  s.  It  is  used  principally  in  words  derived  from 
the  French  language. 

Thus,  gar^on,  in  which  word  the  <j  is  to  be  nronounced  like  s. 

The  agpentst  are  marks  used  to  signify  the  proper  pronunciation  of 
words. 

The  accents  are  three  in  number ; 

The  grave  accent  thus,  ^ 
The  acute  accent ;  thus,  ' 
The  circumflex  accent ;  thus,  a 

The  grave  accent  is  represented  by  a  mark  placed  over  a  letter,  or  syl 
lable,  to  show  that  it  must  be  pronounced  with  the  fallino-  inflection  of 
the  voice;  as,  Rcuthamir.  ° 

The  acute  accent  is  represented  by  a  similar  mark,  pointino-  in  the 
opposite  direction,  to  show  that  the  letter  or  syllable  must  be  pronounced 
with  the  rising  inflection  of  the  voice;  thus,  Epicurean,  European. 
^  The  meaning  of  a  sentence  often  depends  on  the  kind  of  accent  v/hich 
is  used  ;  thus,  the  following  sentence  if  the  acute  accent  be  used  on  the 
word  alone,  becomes  a  question. 

"  Pleased  thou  shalt  hear,  and  thou  alone  shalt  hear  ?  " 

But,  if  the  grave  accent  be  placed  on  the  word  alone,  it  becomes  a  simple 
tteclaration ;  as, 

*  The  word  dicsresis  is  derived  from  the  Greek  language,  and  siffnifiea 
K  takrvg  away,  or  a  division. 

t  The  word  acce7ii  is  derived  from  the  Latin  language,  and  signifies  tAt 
kfjte  0/  the  voice.  =    o  j  o 


32 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


"  Pleased  thou  shalt  hear,  and  thou  alone  shalt  hear." 
The  circumflex  accent  is  the  union  of  the  grave  and  acute  accents  ana 
indicates  that  the  syllable  on  which  it  is  placed  should  have  both  the 
rishig  and  the  falling  inflection  of  the  voice. 

The  caret  *  is  a  mark  resembling  an  inverted  v,  placed  under  the  Ime 
It  is  never  used  in  printed  books,  but,  in  manuscripts,  it  shows  that 
something  has  been  accidentally  omitted ;  as, 
recited 

"  George  has  his  lesson." 

The  following  marks  are  references-,  and  are  generally  used  to  call 
attention  to  notes  on  words  or  sentences,  placed  at  the  bottom  ot  the 
page: 

The  Asterisk,  *  The  Parallels,  1| 

The  Obelisk,  t  The  Paragraph,  ^ 

The  Double  Obelisk,  t  The  Index,  [T^ 

The  Section,  § 

When  many  notes  occur  on  a  page,  and  these  marks  are  all  exhausted, 
they  are  sometimes  doubled.  Figures  and  letters  are  also  sometimes 
used  instead  of  the  above  marks.  ^  j  i,  * 

It  is  proper  to  remark,  that,  in  some  books  the  section,  §,  and  the  para- 
graph, H,  are  used  to  mark  the  parts  of  a  composition,  which  m  wriUng 
or  printing  should  be  separated. 

A  paragraph!  denotes  the  beginning  of  a  new  subject,  or  a  sentence 
Dot  connected  with  the  foregoing. 

A  section  t  is  used  for  subdividing  a  chapter  into  smaller  parts. 

It  is  proper  here  to  remark,  that  every  composition  should  be  divided 
into  paragraphs,  when  the  sense  will  allow  the  separation.  Different 
subjects,  unless  they  are  very  short,  or  very  numerous  in  a  small  compass 
should  be  separated  into  paragraphs. 

EXERCISES  IN  PUNCTUATION. 

Insert  Commas  in  their  proper  places  in  the  following  sentences. 

Wife  children  servants  all  that  could  be  found  were  savagely  slaugh- 

^^^He  had  been  born  bred  and  educated  on  a  small  moorland  farm  which 
he  now  cultivated. 

Doing  to  others  as  we  wish  them  to  do  to  us  constitutes  the  fundamen 
tal  principle  of  Christian  charity. 

Julius  Csesar  wrote  in  a  clear  natural  correct  flowing  style. 


*  The  word  caret  is  derived  from  the  Latin  language,  and  signifies  it 
wanting.  .  .,. 

t  The  word  paragraph  is  derived  from  the  Greek  language,  and  signiiies 
an  ascription  iii  tkd  margin.  , 

i  The  word  section  \^  derived  from  the  Latin  language,  and  signites  a 
aivisionov  cutting.  The  character  which  denotes  a  section  seems  toba 
made  of  ss,  and  to  be  an  abbreviation  of  the  words  sigmi/in  sectionis,  th« 
^ign  of  the  section. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  33 

Climate  soil  laws  custom  food  and  other  accidental  differences  have 

?r,?irAf  f,  ^T'"'^'''^  ^'"^''^  complexion  features  manners  and 

raculties  of  the  human  race. 

^f'^'^^^^T- ^°^'''^^P°"f  e^ce  we  may  advise  dissuade  exhort  re- 
quest  recommend  discuss  comfort  reconcile 

thmw/nff  ^^'^^^rs  casts  them  into  the  proper  channels 

thiows  off  redundancies  and  assists  nature  in  her  necessary  operations 

rationrily."'''''  ^^^"^  impartially  accurately  and 

Homer  the  greatest  poet  of  antiquity  is  reported  to  have  been  blind 
Milton  the  author  of  "Paradise  Lost"  and  "Regained"  was  blind 
I  am  my  dear  Sir  your  humble  servant.  ^ 
The  earth  like  a  tender  mother  nourishes  her  children 
Harold  bemg  slain  the  conqueror  marched  immediately  to  London 
fewift  says  no  man  ever  wished  himself  younger. 
To  err  is  human  ;  to  forgive  divine. 
rJf^fF^-fl  J^'""^'  T^^"'  ^^^^'^^^       ^a^-ished  all  her  favors  not 

W  Ki^'f  ^''"^  "'"'''^  °^  powerful  armies  numerous  fleets  anS  nex 
urpleasurr"''  P^^P^^^^  ^  reward  to  anyone  who  should  invent  a 

oflZ^MTlnTJete'  ^""^"^  ^"^^  ^^^^^^  ^^-<1 

She  let  concealnient  like  a  M^orm  in  the  bud  feed  on  her  damask  cheek 
Nature  has  wisely  determined  that  man  shall  want  an  appetite  in  the 

beginning  of  distempers  as  a  defence  against  their  increase.^ 

I  he  whole  circle  of  vices  like  shadows  towards  the  evening  of  life 

appear  enormous  to  a  thinking  person.  ^ 

nr  If  "Jif' ^  '""^Pf  ^  ^^^^  ^^t^e^  of  single  persons  of  empires 

or  of  the  whole  earth  depends  on  the  influence  of  the  stars.  ^ 

TnseH  the  Comma,  Colon,  and  Semicolon  where  they  helmxg  in  the  follomnq 
sentences. 

Green  is  generally  considered  the  most  refreshing  color  to  the  era 
therefore  Providence  has  made  it  the  common  dress  of  nature  ^ 
1  o  err  is  human  to  forgive  divine. 

The  ami  of  orators  is  victory  of  historians  truth  of  poets  admiration 
Samt  Peter  IS  painted  with  the  k^ys  Paul  with  a  swSrd  Andrew  with  a 
cross  James  the  Greater  with  a  pilgrim's  staff  and  a  gourd  bottlj  James 
the  Less  with  a  fuller's  pole  John  with  a  cup  and  a  winged  serpent  Bar! 
holomew  with  a  knife  Philip  with  a  long  staff  or  crosfThomas  liTh  a 
«ran?i?d7.r^^^^^^^^  with  a  battle-axe  ,Zr^Zl 

Some  place  their  bliss  in  action  some  in  ease 
TVT   .  -"-^os®  call  it  pleasure  and  contentment  these. 

^'lyZt^StlrZ^r-^'^^'      taaginaay  but  o..  disqui. 

UBfvcr^rytat-etbir  "     ^^"5^  to  znak.  a  ma. 

rhll^^  ^'^'^  Testament  as  in  the  dignified  and  sober  lita/c-v  of  the 
Chtirch  vre  see  deep  humiHty  bnt  not  loathsome  abjeetoess  s^cerf  re^nt! 


AIDS  TO  EJSGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


ance  but  not  agonizing  horror  steadfast  faith  but  not  presumptuous  assur- 
ance lively  1  ope  but  not  seraphic  abstraction  the  deep  sense  of  human 
infirmity  but  not  the  unblushing  profession  of  leprous  depravity  the  holy 
and  heavenly  communion  but  not  vague  experiences  nor  the  intemperate 
trance. 

Do  not  flatter  yourself  with  the  idea  of  enjoying  perfect  happmess 
there  is  no  such  thing  in  the  world. 

Keep  close  to  thy  business  it  will  keep  thee  from  wickedness  poverty 

and  shame.  /.  /.  i  i     j  • 

The  path  of  truth  is  a  plain  and  it  is  a  safe  path  that  of  falsehood  is  a 
perplexing  maze. 

Do  not  flatter  yourself  with  the  idea  of  enjoying  perfect  happmess  for 
there  is  no  such  thing  in  the  world. 

Were  all  books  reduced  to  their  quintessence  many  a  bulky  author 
would  make  his  appearance  in  a  penny  paper  there  would  be  no  such 
thing  in  nature  as  a  folio  the  works  of  an  age  would  be  contained  on  a 
few  "helves  not  to  mention  millions  of  volumes  that  would  be  utterly 
annihilated. 

Insert  the  Period,  Question,  and  Exclamation  Point,  where  they  respectively 
belong  in  the  folloiving  sentences. 

Honor  all  men  Fear  God  Truth  is  the  basis  of  every  virtue  Every  de- 
viation from  veracity  is  criminal  The  Latin  language  is  now  called  a  dead 
language  because  it  is  not  spoken  as  the  mother  tongue  of  any  nation 
America  was  discovered  in  the  night  of  Oct  1 1th  0  S  AD  1492  Have 
you  ever  read  its  history  The  Rambler  was  witten  by  Samuel  Johnson 
LL  D  Sir  Josh  Reynolds  F  R  S  was  a  very  distinguished  artist 

In  the  formation  of  man  what  wonderful  proofs  of  the  magnificence  of 
God's  works  and  how  poor  and  trifling  in  comparison  are  the  productions 
of  man  Whv  do  vou  weave  around  you  this  web  of  occupation  and  then 
complain  that  you  cannot  break  it  How  superior  is  the  internal  construe- 
tion  of  the  productions  of  nature  to  all  the  works  of  men 


XV. 

DERIVATION  Aim  COMPOSITION  OF  WORDS. 

Words,  with  regard  to  their  origin,  are  divided  into  primi- 
tive and  derivative ;  and,  with  regard  to  their  form,  into  sim- 
\j\e  and  comprund. 

A  primitive  word  is  a  word  which  is  in  its  origmal  form, 
and  is  not  derived  from  any  other  word;  as,  man,  goodr 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


35 


A  derivative  word  is  that  wliicli  is  derived  from  another 
word ;  as,  manful,  manhood,  manly,  manliness;  goodness,  good- 
ly, &c. ;  contented,  contentment,  contenting,  contentedly,  &c. ; 
which  are  derived  respectively  from  the  primitive  words,  man, 
good,  content. 

A  simple  word  consists  of  one  word,  not  compounded;  as 
sea,  able,  self. 

A  compound  word  is  a  word  that  is  made  up  of  two  or  more 
words,  or  of  one  word  and  some  syllable  added ;  as,  sea-water, 
unable,  myself.  * 

"Words  are  found,  on  examination,  to  be  reducible  to  groups  or  families 
and  are  related  to  each  other  by  iilentitv  of  origin  and  similarity  of  signi- 
fication. Thus  the  words  justly,  justice,  justify,  justification,  justiciary, 
adjust,  readjust,  unjust,  injustice,  &c.,  are  all  kindred  words,  connected 
with  the  primitive  word  just.  The  primitive  words  of  a  language  are 
generally  few  m  number,  and  language  is  rendered  copious  and  expressive 
by  the  formation  of  derivatives  and  compounds  from  the  primitives. 

When  a  syllable  is  added,  in  the  composition  of  words,  it  takes  its 
name  from  the  position  in  which  it  is  placed  with  regard  to  the  word.  If 
It  is  placed  before  the  word  it  is  called  a  prefix,  if  at  the  end  of  the  word 
It  IS  called  an  affix.  ' 

In  derivative  words,  there  are  generally  three,  and  sometimes  four 
things  to  be  considered ;  namely,  first,  the  root,  from  which  the  word  is 
derived;  secondly,  the  prefix;  thirdly,  the  affix;  fourthly,  the  letters 
lett^re  ^'^^  ^^^^  "^^^^^        ^®  ^^^^^^  eviphonic 

The  root  is  cometimes  called  the  radical  letters  of  a  word.  Thus  from 
the  I.atin  word  venix),  which  signifies  to  come,  and  its  variation  ventum 
many  English  words  are  derived,  in  the  following  manner:  The  first 
three  letters  of  the  word  are  taken,  as  the  radical  'letters,  or  root  of  the 
word.  By  adding  the  prefix  contra,  which  signifies  aqoinst,  we  have  con- 
ft-aum;  to  which  is  added  the  euphonic  letter  e,  to  lengthen  the  last  svlla- 
ble,  and  thus  is  composed  the  word  contravene,  which  means  to  come  against 
or  oppose.  In  a  similar  manner,  we  have  the  words  preveicL  invent,  circum 
vent,  convent,  and  their  derivatives,  f  -r       ■«  , 


*  Some  compound  words  are  formed  by  the  union  of  two  other  words; 
as  sea-water,  semi-annual.  Such  words  are  generally  recognized  by  the 
hyphen  placed  between  the  words  composing  the  compound.  Mr.  Goold 
Brown  says,  that  ' permanent  compounds  are  consolidated^^  that  is,  are 
writ  en  without  the  hyphen.  But  it  is  contended  that  "  glass-house  "  is  as 
much  a  permanent  compound  as  "  bookseller."    The  truth  is,  that  no  better 


of  Derivative  Words."  In  the  first  mentioned  of  these  works,  the  "  Diver 
sions  ot  1  iirley,'  may  be  found  a  learned  and  ingenious  account  of  the  de 
Sorof  Z^^IX^Z'!'''^  conjunctions  and  preposC 


36  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

Many  of  the  prefixes  used  in  the  composition  of  English  words  are 
Latin  or  Greek  prepositions ;  and  the  effect  which  they  produce  upon  the 
meaning  of  the  root  contributes  much  to  the  copiousness  of  the  English 
language.  * 

There  are  so  many  other  ways  of  deriving  words  from  one  another, 
that  it  would  be  extremely  difficult  and  nearly  impossible  to  enumerate 
them  A  few  instances,  only,  of  the  various  modes  of  derivation,  can  be 
given  here. 

Some  nouns  are  derived  from  other  nouns,  or  from  adjectives,  by  add- 
ing the  affix  hood,  or  [wod,  ship,  ry,  wick,  rick,  dom,  ian,  ment,  and  age;  as, 
from  man,  by  adding  the  affix  hood,  comes  manhood,  from  knight,  knight- 
hood, &c.,  from  false,  falsehood,  &c. 

Nouns  ending  in  hood,  or  head,  are  such  as  signify  character  or  quality  j 
as,  manhood,  falsehood. 

Nouns  ending  in  ship  are  those  that  signify  office,  employment,  state,  or 
condition ;  as  lordship,  stewardship,  hardship. 

Nouns  ending  in  ery  signify  action  or  habit;  as,  slavery,  knavery, 
bravery.  .    .  . 

Nouns  ending  in  mck,  rick,  and  dom,  denote  dominion,  jurisdiction,  or 
condition ;  as  bailiwick,  bishoprick,  dukedom,  kingdom,  freedom. 

Nouns  ending  in  ian  signify  profession ;  as,  physician,  musician,  &c. 

Nouns  that  end  in  ment  or  age  signify  the  act,  or  habit ;  as  command- 
ment, usage. 

Nouns  that  end  in  ard  denote  character  or  habit  ;  as  drunkard,  dotard 
Nouns  ending  in  kin,  ling,  ing,  ock,  el,  generally  signify  diminution;  a? 

lamb,  lambkin,  duck,  duckling, 'hill,  hillock,  cock,  cockerel. 
Nouns  ending  in  tude,  or  ude,  generally  signify  state,  condition,  or  ct 

pacity ;  as  plenitude,  aptitude,  &c. 

ALPHABETICAL  SYNOPSIS  OF  PREFIXES. 


A,  Ab,  Abs,  fro7n. 

Ad,  Ac,  Al,  Ap,  At,  &c.,  to. 

Ambi,  both, 

Amb,  amphi,  round. 

Ante,  before. 

Anti,  agaimt. 

Ana,  back. 

Apo,  Aph,  from. 

Auto,  one's  self. 

Be,  to  make, 

Bene,  well. 

Bi.  Bis,  trvo,  half. 

Biblio,  book. 

Bio,  life. 

Centu,  hundred. 

Chrono,  time. 

Circum,  round. 

Co,  Con,  Col,  Com,  Cor.  with. 
Contra,  against. 
Cosmo,  the  tvorld, 
Ctttinter,  opposite. 


De,  from,  down. 
Deca,  ten. 

Di,  Dis,  &c.,  separation,  not. 

Dia,  through. 

Dys,  bad,  difficult,  hard. 

E,  Ex,  El,  Em,  Er,  &c.,  out  of 

En,  Em,  in. 

Epi,  upon. 

Equi,  equnl. 

Extra,  beymid. 

Eor,  against. 

Fore,  prior. 

Geo,  the  earth. 

Hetero,  of  divers  kinds. 

Hex,  Hexa,  six.^ 

Homo,  of  one  kind. 

Hydro,  water. 

Hyper,  over. 

In,  Im,  II,  not,  with  an  adje* 

tive,  into,  with  a  verb,,  on. 
Inter,  among. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


r>7 


Intro,  within. 
Juri,  legal. 
Jiixta,  near. 
Litho,  stom. 
Male,  evil. 
Manu,  hand. 
Mis,  error. 
Mono,  one, 
Multi,  many. 
Myth,  fabdoiis. 
Noct,  nz^At 
Non,  Ne,  not. 

Ob,  Oc.  &c.,  fee/ore,  against. 
Oct,  eiV/A^. 
Omni,  a//. 

Ornitho,  bird.  , 

Ortho,  n)7^?. 

Oste,  bone. 

Out,  beyond. 

Over,  a^ove. 

Pan,  a//. 

Para,  against. 

Penta,  Jive. 

Per,  through. 

Peri,  around. 

Phil,  fiiendly. 

Physi,  nature. 

Pleni, 

Poly,  many. 

Post,  o/ier. 

Pre,  ie/bre. 


wation, 
J 


Preter,  bcymd. 

Pro,  fie/bre,  oui. 

Pyro,  }?re. 

Quad,  ybur. 

He,  a;5fam. 

Eetro,  back. 

Se,  separation. 

Semi. 
Demi, 
Hemi, 
Sex,  Six. 
Sine,  without. 
Soli,  a/o/ze. 
Steno,  sAor#. 
Stereo,  solid. 
Sub,  Sue,  &c.,  wcfer 
Subter,  under. 
Super,  Supra,  aJoye 
Sur,  over. 

Syn,  Syl,  &c.,  with. 
Tetra,  four. 
Theo, 
•  Topo,  place. 
Trans,  across. 
Tri,  three. 
Typo,  ^?//}e. 
TJndor,  beneath. 
Uni,  0776. 
With,  opposition. 
Zoo,  animal  life. 


ALPHABETICAL  SYNOPSIS  OF  AFFIXES. 


-Age,  ranh,  office. 

Ance,  ancy,  ] 

Ence,  ency,   \  state  or  act  of. 

Ant,  ent,  j 

Ate,  ary,  having. 

Ble,  that  may  be. 

Bleness,  the  quality  of  being  able. 

Bly,  in  a  manner. 

Cy,  ty,  y,  ity,  stofe,  condition. 

En,  m. 

Er,  or,  an,  ian,  ex,  ess,  ee,  eer,  ist, 

ite,  san,  zen,  the  person  who. 
Fy,  to  make. 
les,  science.,  art. 

Ion,  ity,  ment,  the  state  or  act  of . 
Ish,  some  degree. 


Ism,  doctrine^  state. 

Ive,  ic,  ical,  ile,  ine,  ing-,  it,  ial.  ent 

ant,  pertaining  to,  luaving  the  'quad 

Ity,  relating  to. 
Ize,  to  make. 
Less,  without. 
Ey,  like^  resembling. 
Ness,  quality  of. 
Oid,  resembling. 
Ous,  ose,     )  nature  of. 
Ory,  some,  \  like,  full  of 
Ric,  dom,  possession. 
Ship,  office. 
Ude,  sta^e  o/"  6e??z^. 
Ure,  act  of  state  of  being 
Ward,  in  a  diremmu 


88 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


AFFIXES  TO  AFFIXES. 

Are,  ated,  ating,  ater,  ator,  ately,  ateness,  ation,  ative,  atory,  able,  ably, 

ableness,  ability,  ty's,  ties,  ties'.       _         .  ^ 
Ant,  antly,  ance,  ancy,  ancy's,  ancies,  ancies . 
Fid,  fully,  fulness.  . 
JV,  fies,  fiest,  fied,  fying,  fier,  fication,  cative,  cator. 
Al,  ally,  alness,  alism,  alist,  ality,  ty  s,  &c 
Ize,  ized,  izing,  ization,  isna,  ic,  izable. 
Ous,  ously,  ousness,  osity,  ity,  y,  ty. 
Ive,  ively,  ivencss,  ivity. 
lie,  ilely,  ileness,  ility. 

The  En-lish  language  has,  in  many  instapces  two  sets  denv^^^^ 
Jds!  exp°resl-e  of  the  same  thing,  the  one  of  Saxon,  and  the  other  of 
Latin  origin.  Thus, 


SAXON. 

Pearful, 

Swiftness, 

Womanish, 

Building, 

"Fewness, 


LATIN. 

Timid. 

Velocity. 

Effeminate. 

Edifice. 

Paucity. 


SAXON. 

Height, 

Lifeless, 

Yearly, 

Watery, 

Hearer, 


lATIN. 

Altitude. 

Exanimate. 

Annual. 

Aqueous. 

Auditor. 


And,  in  many  instances,  the  nouns  are  of  Saxon  origin,  while  the  cor- 
responding adjectives  are  from  the  Latin,  inu^,, 

ADJECTIVES  TBOM  THE  LATIN. 


NOUNS  FROM  THE  SAXON. 

Beginning, 
Body, 
Brother, 
Eather, 
Mother, 
Cat, 
Bay, 
Dog, 
Earth, 
'  Elock, 
Elour, 
Glass, 


Initial. 

Corporeal. 

Eraternal. 

Paternal. 

Maternal. 

Eeline. 

Diurnal. 

Canine. 

Terrestrial. 

Gregarious. 

Earinaceous. 

Vitreous,  &c. 


The  student  is  now  prepared  to  write  a  list  of  words  de- 
rived  from  tlie  proposed  simple  words,  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing 

Mxample. 

From  the  word  p^ess,  tlie  following  words  are  derived 
■Presser,  pressed,  pression, 

pi^S,  preeBive,  P«l^' 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COIVrPOSITION. 


depress, 
dej)ression,  &c. 
im])ress, 
impression,  &c. 
re-impress,  &c. 
compress, 
compression,  &c. 
uncompress, 


uncompressed,  &c. 

repress, 

repressed, 

repression, 

express, 

expression, 

oppress. 


39 


oppressor, 
oppression,  &c. 
suppress, 
suppressor, 
suppression,  &c. 
insuppress,  &c. 
unsuppressed,  &c. 


Write  a  list  of 
ng  the  prefixes 

Faith. 

Health. 

Pity. 

Hope. 

Mercy. 

Art. 

Care. 

Need. 

Fear. 

Shame. 

Respect. 

Create. 

Fine. 

Scribe. 
Argue. 

Sense. 

Lucie. 

Join. 

Real. 

Large. 

Form. 

Fense. 

Move. 

Spect. 

Sijm. 


JElxercises. 

words  derived  from  the  following  words  or  roots  bv  add 
sufiixes,  &c.,  that  have  been  explained  ^ 


Jure. 

Marry, 

Merge. 

Tend. 

Stand. 

Run. 

Ply. 

Range. 

Create. 
Pose. 

Graphic. 
Fac  and 
Factum.^ 
Divide- 
Improve. 
Profess. 
Succeed. 
Deduce. 
Defend. 
Resolve. 
Calumny. 
Arm. 
Peace. 
Love. 
Lau2:h. 


Right. 

Good. 

Idol. 

Law. 

Author. 

Contract. 

Present. 

Attend. 

Moderate. 

Virtue. 

Use. 

Presume. 

Separate. 

Critic. 

False. 

Fire. 

Full. 

Frolic. 

Fortune. 

Multiply. 

Note. 

Conform. 

Hinder. 

Book. 

Apply. 


Append. 

Absolve. 

Abridge. 

Answer. 

Aspire. 

Pride. 

Blame. 


Caprice. 
Censure. 
Caution. 
Cite. 

Commune. 

Conceal. 

Correct. 

Reform. 

Defy. 

Define. 

Discover. 

Elect. 

Elevate. 

Fancy. 

Faction. 

Fault. 

Favor. 


the  composition  of  mo^e  than  five  TZ%Ia  J  'I  ^f'"^^  ^"'^o 

words  efte^,  ^.^me  shaS  Vto  Sp^"'^       '■  ^'^H"'  ^^^^  '^^^'^^ 
words.    From  154  G^-eS  K;i  f.f-  ^  •''"^P^''^  nearly  2500  English 

are  derived'  or  ar«  i^XT^  if-  "  P"^^^^^^«s,  neariy  13,000  Englisl,  words 


40 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COJIPOSITION- 


Figure. 
Form- 
Fury. 
Grace. 
Harm. 
Humor. 
Imitate. 
Indulge 
Moral. 


Mount. 

Open. 

Peace. 

Potent. 

Prefer. 

Presume. 

Proper. 

Pure. 

Reason. 


Motion. 

Rebel. 

Remark. 

Represent. 

Secret. 

Spirit. 

Subscribe. 

Suffice. 


Teach. 

Tolerate. 

Tradition 

Tremble. 

Value. 

Yapor. 

Vivid. 

Wit. 


XVI. 

STNOOTMES. 


;io  -UoT-^no-  -nreoiselv  the  same  meaning. 
Synonymes  m-e  words  having  preasely 
The  number  of  words  m  any  lan^a     ^       ^^^^  ^^^^^^^ 

synonomous  are  f^^  ]^''"*' .f  Jg  ^nany  instances  of  words, 
in  the  Enghsh  language  ™^°?e  of  precisely  the 

,e.i.ed  from  « 

2S;;tra— ^^^^^^^ 

precisely  the  same  impoi^-  ^^.^^  •  ,t  enumerated,  the  words 

Although,  ^vith  exception.  .  ?/Xn  the  case  that  one  word  of 
.  str-ictly  synonomous  ai-e  ^^^^^^ll^'fl^^^     for  another,  without 

similar  meanmg  ^^y^^'f  ^,"i^Sd  to  be  expressed.    Thus,  in  the  sen- 

materiallY  ^l^enng  the  idea  mtended^^         P^^  ^  „  ^^^^^^^  ^^^.^ 

PTice  "  I  c?e5zon  to  sAoiu  the  diirerence  lu  ^^'^  n 

be  changed  into  intend,  puryose,  propose,  or  mean  ,  thus. 
I  cZes/an  to  show  the  difference  in  these  words 
I  ntmd  to  show  the  difference  m  t^f  ^  wo^t;ee  &c 
\Urpos,  ^opose,  or  mean  to  sho^  the  d.«  ^ 

The  word  sAou;  may  m  like  ^^^f    ^^^^f^ted  into  c/.-sfi.ciion,  and  expres- 

^^IS^SS?  as  these  .i^-  — S^?^- ^ 
and  are  of  great  use  as  a  H^^^^^^^X  ^^^^h  expres 

verse.  But  to  the  poet  especially  a  1^"^^',^'  4^^.  Confined  as  he  is 
lions  of  similar  meaning  - /^^f  f  J,  ^^t^^^^^  substituted 


• 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  41 

hL^ser"^'^^"^^^^^  the  measure,  or  the  hannony,  of 

.     ir^t^^'^e^^^^^^^  Although. 

these  words,"  it  his  Len  oKrv^d  tat  tL  Zd^/'j^^^'^  '^^^^^"^^^ 
or  mean,  maybe  suhstifntPH  fr.^  I;  •  "^^«"^W^«ryjose,  Dro/;ose, 

sense,  yet  it  mSst  be  alteriVthe 
different  in  meaning.    S  worS  .^^^^^^^^^  rtnJT^'  '^'"^'^^^^^  ^^'^  really 

signifies  ?c,  S..St/.Sr^^^^^^^^ 
^.n^  expresses  of  the  mfndiu:aSZ  Z^^^  '^''^ 

wo^^^^Ssl^Srar  :&oM^^^^^  -ed  as 

plishing  an  underki'g/lnd  tpf^?^  1^  the  /aa%  of  aecom- 

-.n^s  relate  to  the  confusion  Sit  a  tSe  ^f  debf  ^T.  Emharrass- 
pam  which  is  the  natural  consequence  of  no?  fntmr 
answering  demands.    Of  the  tWe  wordf  ^ ^^1^"^^^  engagements  or 
and  ^ro^.6Fes  the  most.    "  4  youit  rTn^o^^^^^  '^^'^t' 
will  unavoidably  exoerienopTS?;.  ^I-  entrance  mto  the  world, 

in  the  outset.    But  Tech's  mf T'  ^^^^^  ^"^P^^  ^eanJ 

denoe,  and  talents  fi?tPd  fn.  k    •  ^^^P^^'         have  not  pru- 

from  ernl.L'^.:X2t^Z.  the Sest /  '^^^  ^^^^^^^ 

the  peace  of  a  man's  niind  "         ^  '^^'^  ^"^^  to  disturb 

^^^^^^^^l^^tT^  ^^^^-gh  frequently  used 
has  already  been  obseryed  rein  their  meanmgs.    Difficulty,  as 

oMacle  signifies  the  thSgVSl^^^^  V'^"^ 
the  object  he  has  in  yiew  •  aXwlXt   /  •    %  between  the  person  and 
gles  the  feet    All  of  IheTe  te^msXh  ^  '^^^"^  ^^^^^^ 

interfer4  either  vyitrthet"  nr  f  yi^^^^^^^^^^  H^'f' 
most  m  the  nature  and  circumstanpp«  nf  T  Jl-  ^  difficulty  beg 

consist  of  tha  Xchl^^fe^^^^^^^^  th^  obstacfe  and 

feres  with  the  completion  of  any  w^/rl  oi^^^^^^  ^#c%  inter- 

tamment  of  any  end  •  the  iwnpIiZZ-\  obstacle  mterferes  with  the  at- 
the  execution  of  one's  ^L^^  ZITT'^''^^'  P^^^'^^ts 
powers  of  acting  o7  dSinl'-  fbpl^  ;^  embarrasses;  it  suspends  the 
met  in  the  way,^and  interySfs'  h^LtT  "  °|P°^«\  tself ;  it  is  properly 
shackles  and  p'^ts  a  stop  toTr  prS^^  ^^^^^"^^ 
difficulty,  surmounting  an  ofeJ/e  and   er^ovt?  encountering  a 

of  the  mmd  often  occasions  tyia-p  h  -  .P^'-^^^^^ts.  I  he  disposition 
jects  themselyes ;  CSuen^e  oflC^nir''  negociations,  than  {he  sub- 
which  Philip  of  kac'edon'™  ncerin  t^^^^^ 

mthe  language  is  the  o-reatest  nwrl^-,  !^/  l-^u  ^"^""^^^^  ignorance 
in  the  pursuit^  any  ^bjeTouJ  J^^^^  etity/"'"^^"^^  ^^P^-^ 

twteItefet'cJ4Ts'?efrrr'rLthI?t'  ^^P^f-  of  the  difference  be 
Synonymes  explain  edTB  Alphabe^^^  ^"^'^  "  English 

ExamDles  dra^  from  the  test  w5L?f^^^  j:^*^  copious  lUustrations^nd 
Hali,  Oxford."  ^Viit^rs,  by  George  Crabb,  of  Magdalen 

4* 


42 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


The  followino-  instances  show  a  difference  m  the  meaning 
of  words  reputed  synonymous,  and  point  out  the  use  ot  at- 
tending, with  care  and  strictness,  to  the  exact  import  ot 

'^'''custom,  haUt.  Custom  respects  the  action  ;  ^  habit  the 
actor.  By  custom,  we  mean  the  frequent  repetition  of  the 
same  act;  by  habit,  the  effect  which  that  ^^^^^^^^^^.P^-^^^^^^^ 
on  the  mind  or  body.  By  the  custom  of  walking  often  in  the 
streets,  one  acquires  a  habit  of  idleness. 

Pride,  vanity.  Tride  makes  us  esteem  ourselves;  vanity 
makes  us  desire  the  esteem  of  others.  It  is  just  to  say,  that 
a  man  is  too  proud  to  be  vain. 

Jfauqhtiness,  disdain.  Haughtiness  is  founded  on  the  high 
opinion  we  entertam  of  ourselves ;  disdain,  on  the  low  opinion 
we  have  of  others.  .  , 

Only,  alone.  Only  imports,  that  there  is  no  other  of  the 
same  kind;  alone  imports  being  accompanied  by  no  othei. 
An  only  child  is  one  that  has  neither  brother  nor  sister ;  a 
fhild  alone  is  one  who  is  left  by  itself.  There  is  a  difference, 
therefore,  in  precise  language,  between  these  two  phras.s 
"Virtue  only  makes  us  happy;"  and  "Virtue  alone  makes 

""'wZlm,  prudence.  Wisdom  leads  us  to  speak  and  act 
what  is  most  proper.    Prudence  prevents  our  speakmg  or 

A  thing  ife  entire  when  it  wants  none  of 
its  parts  complete  when  it  wants  none  of  tl^^  ^PP^^^^f^^ 
that  belong  to  it.  A  man  may  have  an  entire  house  to  him- 
self, and  yet  not  have  one  complete  apartment. 

Surprised,  astonished,  amazed,  confounded.  I  am  surpris- 
ed with  what  is  new  or  unexpected;  I  am  astonished  at  what 
is  vast  or  great ;  I  am  amazed  at  what  is  incomprehensible ;  i 
am  confounded  by  what  is  shocking  or  terrible. 

Tranquillity,  peace,  calm.  Tranquillity  respects  a  situation 
free  from  trouble,  considered  in  itself;  peace,  the  same  situa- 
tion with  respect  to  any  causes  that  might  interrupt  i  ;  calm 
with  regard  to  a  disturbed  situation  gomg  before  or  ^o^lo^ung 
it.  A  lood  man  enjoys  tranquillity,  m  hmiself ;  peace,  with 
others  ;  and  calm,  after  a  storm. 

In  a  similar  manner,  differences  can  be  pointed  out  ^^J^^  J^f^^l^^ 

mur,  vanquish,  subdue,  ave^rorm,  ^^^v'^'T"?"  ^     i  I  SS-L 

to  gam  an  object ;  vanquish  implies  the  binding  of  an  tndivM,  sut^aus 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  43 

Persons  or  things  are  cZmreZ^^^^  ''''  above  any  onl 

An  enemy  or  a  connn  vT  persons,  only,  are  varwaislud. 

74  dk-es  a  7p  ^  °'  people  are 

over  him  ;  we  vmLish  him  wi^L  {  '^'''^^^^^'^  means  we  gam  the  mastery 

C^Jn-istL  tries  to  con^^uerh  "enemies  bv  Hnd?"'^'  ^ 
rarrior  tries  to  vanamlh  them  in  thT  firld'  I       f '         generosity  j  a 
his  rebel  subjects  by  aTlue  m^^^  T^'"'  ^^^^s'to 

may  be  vanquished  in  a  sin4  batde   on^  t  fiTT 
violent  and  persevering  measures      '  ^'^""'^  ''^^^  "^^^t 

af|^;-:;hKm^S':^^^  .va^HaroM, 

and  .  T Imt  s  are  analogous  to  overcome 

is  oaercome  and  ^Mch  fs  eSr  im"'^  f      ^^^^  "'^"^  ' 

co«7««-and  overcome  what  makes  no  L!!/  •  ^'"^^  external.  We 
mount  what  is  violent  Ind  strnm!  ;^  .^  '  resistance  ;  we  5«6rf^..  and  sur 
and  feelings  in  genial  d   er  for       °PP°'^^^^°"-    ^^^^'ikes,  attachments, 

tun.ultuoul  pass^o^r^re  to  be  sSLSTr''       '"'T^^^^'  ""^-"^^^ 
his  spirit,    ine  by  o M^^^^^^  ^-"^^elf,  he.«W.es 

extraordinary  means  It  vLnhZ^I  means  and  efforts,  one  subdues  by 
overcome;  patince  and  pe  e^v  ^nce  tT:'/^'""  ^""''^^  ^«  -"'^'^^  anj 
aims  at  Christian  perfecfion  m^st  ?tr  ,e  S^^^^  ^^"^^'^^ 
avarice,  pride,  and  every  inn  -Hfnnf;  ^^"-'i.  God  s  assistance  to  conquer 
lust,  and  evelV  carmT  am JdtP  tn      P^'^P^^^^^^^  5  to  wrath,  anger, 

tempter,  an7to  rLr/toals  aM^r^''^  vanqulsh\he 
course.  ^"^^  impediments,  which  obstruct  his 

to  the  foUowino-  exercises  ot  this  Lesson  according 

Example. 

words,  haW„,  a-'./r,  S  S^fspltti; 

t<^tm^orto„«,  mezgrnlicant.  immaterial,  inconsiderable 


44 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


See,  perceive,  observe,  behold,  look  at. 

Think,  reflect,  ponder,  muse,  imagine,  suppose,  believe 
deem,  consider.* 

In  the  sentences  which  follow,  it  is  required  to.  change  the 
words  as  in  the  following  examples.  The  student  will  notice 
that  every  change  of  words  will,  in  most  cases,  produce  some 
corresponding  change  in  the  idea  ;  but,  as  the  objecvt  of  tne 
exercise  is  to  give  him  a  command^  of  language,  it  is  not 

may  here  be  remarked  that  phrases,  as  ^yell  as  words,  may  be 
exDressS  by  appropriate  synonvmes.    Technically  speaking,  the  term 
sXymt  llg^IerJy  applied  toVmple  terms.    Bnt  a  c"";P«^"f  .^^^F™ 
plrasJmay  be  someti^.ierexpressed  by  a  synonymous  word    and  a  s^mpb 

from  any  volume  at  hand.    But  i^  may  here  be  '•e™;,^,^^^  ^^^^^^X^ 
^vn^nvmous  vkrases  may  be  considered  as  more  valuable  than  tno^e  on 

forth  bv  Mr.  MuiTay,  in  the  '  Exercises  •  appended  to  hib  larger  (grammar, 
ol^tS;-  '^'^L^.n.    Besides  the  practice  of  t-JPOsing  the 

&a»r~si^" 

nature  of  it,  and  to  show  its  utility.  . 
The  brother  deserved  censure  more  than  His  sisrer. 
Thp  sister  was  less  reprehensible  than  her  brother. 
The  si ster  S  not  des'erve  reprehension  so  much  as  her  brother. 
Beproof  was  more  due  to  the  brother,  than  to  the  sis  ei. 
T  will  attend  the  conference,  if  I  can  do  it  conveniently.  _ 
I  ^ind  to  be  at  T  conference,  unless  it  should  be  ^^f^^Z'To.ier.nc^ 
If  I  c?n  do  it  with  convenience,  1  purpose  to  be  presen  at  the  J^^J^^ 
If  it  can  be  done  without  inconvenience,  I  shall  not  fail  to  attend  the  con 

^'?shail  not  absent  myself  from  the  conference,  unless  circumstances  rea 

'^5  propoSTJ I'e  present  at  the  conference,  if  I  can  do  so  consistently  with 

"I  pt^^sTSlSTthe  conference,  unless  I  am  prevented  by  other  avoc. 

Unless  T  am  restrained  by  other  imperative  duties,  I  shall  certainly  be  a. 

^^T  wilf  be  afthe  conference  if  nothing  unforeseen  prevents. 

attend  it. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


45 


tZltj^^""'^'"'  Exercises  to  exact  strict  verbal 

Example  1st. 

He  continued  the  work  without  sfoppma. 
He  continued  the  work  without  restfng. 
He  continued  the  work  without  cessation. 
He  continued  the  work  without  intermission. 
He  continued  the  work  without 


He  continued  the  work  without  leaving  off. 
He  continued  the  work  without  interruption. 
He  continued  the  work  without  obstacle. 
He  continued  the  work  without  impediment,  &c 

Example  2d. 

He  is  free  from  care. 
He  is  free  from  solicitude. 
He  is  exempted  from  anxiety. 
He  is  without  concern,  &c. 

Example  3d. 

•      I  found  that  he  was  an  enemy. 
I  found  that  he  was  a  foe. 
I  found  that  he  was  an  adversary. 
I  found  that  he  was  an  opponent.* 
I  found  that  he  was  an  antagonist. 

Exercises. 
Law  and  order  are  not  remembered. 
teZlliT^tr^^^^^  -^-^  turf  looks  dark  with  Ire.  ye.  ' 

.  W^^dSh  ~'      contradictions  I  had 

by      ey^  ^'^^^  in  the  sensation  conveyed 

To  v^hom  connected  or  by  whom  begot:  ' 
Aptle  of  dust  IS  all  remains  of  thee! 
TT,^  -k     .  ,  ^  '^"^^  all  the  orea<  shall 

.•nfe3«^'"     "        '""^"^  '"-/^      "iftor's  meaning  clearly  to  elejy 


46  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

to  look  up  to  heaven. 

In  the  foUowinq  extracts  the  student  may  alter  the  wordi 
in  ltZ  ioZ  to  implete  the  rhymes;  as  in  the  following 

*  Example. 

Did  sweeter  sounds  adorn  my  flowing  tongue, 
Than  ever  man  pronounced  or  angel  chanted  ; 
Had  I  all  knowledge,  human  and  godlike, 
That  thought  can  reach,  or  science  can  define ;  «c. 

Bhyme  completed. 

Did  sweeter  sounds  adorn  my  flowing  tongue, 
Than  ever  man  pronounced  or  angel  sung; 
Had  I  all  knowledge,  human  and  divme, 
That  thought  can  reach  or  science  can  dehne, 

Exercises. 

A  shepherd's  dog,  unskilled  in  sports, 
Picked  up  acquaintance  of  all  kinds, 
Among  the  rest,  a  fox  he  knew  ;  ^ 
By  frequent  chat  their  friendship  increased. 

Savs  Ren'ard,  "  'T  is  a  cruel  case,  . 
That'man  should  stigmatize  our  gmaration. 
No  doubt,  among  us,  rogues  you  tma, 
As  among  dos^s  and  human  snii.. 
And  yet,  (unknown  to  me  and  you,) 
There  may  be  honest  men  and  notjcdse. 

Thus  slander  tries,  whate'er  it  can, 
To  put  us  on  the  foot  with  the  human  race. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

Not  in  the  solitude, 
Alone,  mav  man  commune  with  Heaven,  or  behold, 

Unly  m  savage /oresi  ' 
And  sunny  vale  the  present  Deity: 
Ur  only  hear  his  voice 

Where  the  winds  whisper  and  the  waves  are  glad. 

Even  here  do  I  behold 
Ihy  steps,  Almighty  !  here,  amidst  the  crowd 
w.i   "^'i^Sh  the  great  city  rolled, 

Chokmg  the  ways  that  wind 

Mongst  the  proud  piles,  the  work  of  human  kind. 

To  y^^^^^f '  ^  .^a'"'  without  a  grudging  heart, 
To  him  who  gives  us  all,  I  yield  a  portion ;  ' 
I  ^nt""  J^V^^"^^'  fro"^  him  accept  it  here- 

tLu  ?In'pT  f        the  welcome  tables  spread; 
Ihen  talked  of  virtue  till  the  time  of  rest, 
When  the  grave  household  round  his  ha  1  repair 

NoUiell  thnn.^'  ^h^'deed  was  completed! 

A    l  l  '  V^^gh  hell's  black  jaws  in  sunder  oai^ 

Confn^i^'  r'^^^  ^--^  assaulfhis^  1, 

Confused,  and  struck  Avith  silence  at  the  deed 
He  flies;  but,  trembling,  fails  to  fly  with  ' 

If  all  our  hppes  and  all  our  apprekemiom. 

Were  prisoned  in  life's  narrow 
If,  travellers  through  this  vale  of  tears 

We  saw  no  better  world  beyond :  ' 
Uh  what  could  check  the  rising  sigh  ^ 

whn    '^{.'^^"^  Plea,°ure^^tou, . 

Uh  who  could  venture  then  to  expire  ? 
UH,  who  could  then  endui'e  to  live  ? 

//i/'ir^"^^^''  T  ^''''''''^  ^^^ch  the  words  in 

Example  1st, 
"The  Iamb  is  ^ame  in  its  disposition 

±lere  the  word  tame  is  incorrectly  used  for  r^nfJp  •  fam.. 


48 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Example  2d. 

"  Newton  discovered  the  telescope,  aud  Harvey  invented 
the  circulation  of  the  blood." 

In  this  example  the  words  discovered  and  invented  should 
change  plac-es.  We  discover  what  was  hidden;  we  invent 
what  is  new. 

Example  3d. 

"  Caius  Marcus  displayed  courage  when  he  stood  unmoved 
with  his  hand  in  the  fire  ;  Leonidas  displayed  his  fortitude 
at  Thermopylse  when  with  three  hundred  Spartans  he  op- 
posed the  entire  army  of  Xerxes." 

Here  also  courage  and  fortitude  should  change  places. 
Courage  enables  us  to  meet  danger;  fortitude  gives  us 
strength  to  endure  paui 

From  such  examples  the  student  will  learn  the  importance 
of  proper  attention  to  the  exact  meaning  of  words.  A  loose 
style  of  writing  is  the  result  of  the  careless  use  of  words, 
improperly  considered  as  synonymous. 

Exercises. 


I  heard  a  large  noise,  which,  though  made  at  a  big  distance,  must  hav. 
been  made  by  a  very  great  animal.  u 

The  work  is  captble  of  great  improvdinent,  although  it  was  written  by 
a  very  susceptible  man.  ^ 

Much  men  were  present,  and  their  united  voices  caused  many  contusion. 

Franklin  framed  the  fact  that  lightning  is  caused  by  electricity,  bir 
Isaac  Newton  discovered  the  telescope.  Solon  invented  a  new  set  ot  laws 
for  the  city  of  Athens  n     j- • 

A  wicked  rmsa  fabricates  sorrow  for  his  sms,  and  ohenjeigns  an  excuse 

for  his  crimes.  .i.  -u 

The  book  has  many  vices,  but  the  defect  is  not  m  the  author,  who  tias 
suthcientlv  shown  his  abhorrence  faults. 

I  know  the  man  and  am  acquainted  tvith  his  faults.  We  are  agreeably 
amazed  to  see  our  friends  returning  so  soon.  We  are  surprised  that  they 
accomplished  their  business  so  early,  as  well  as  astonished  at  the  unexpect- 
ed events  which  nearly  threatened  their  ruin. 

We  often  know  the  spot  where  a  thing  is,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  hnd  ou, 
the  exact  place  where  it  happened.  .  .  ^  /• 

When  dissensions  arise  among  neighbors,  their  passions  often  interfere 
to  hinder  accommodations;  when  members  of  a  family  consult  interest 
or  bumor,  rather  than  affection,  there  will  necessarily  be  variances ;  and 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


49 


when  mariy  member  of  a  community  have  an  equal  liberty  to  express 
their  opmions,  there  will  necessarily  be  <//sa^/reemei 
ii.tr^^^''''^^  economy  in  people  of  property  is  low,  but  swearing  and 
drunkenness  are  meaner  vices.  ^     j         ■>  s 

We  perform  many  duties  only  as  the  occasion  offers,  or  as  the  opmrtu 
nity  requires.  '  ^i^^iti* 

It  is  the  duty  of  a  person  to  govern  those  who  are  under  hun  in  aU  mat 
ters  wherein  they  are  incompetent  to  rule  themselves. 

Fashion  and  caprice  regulate  the  majority  as  the  tune  of  one  clock  rules 
tuat  or  many  others. 

Exuberance  imagination  and  luxuriance  of  intellect  are  the  greatest 
gifts  of  which  a  poet  can  boast.  ^  '^^icot 

^y^J'^iy'^.^.^J!^''^^{^^^^^  things  good,  bad,  or  indifferent, 

^^m%hQ  distinguished  for  our  singularities ;  we  maybe  cov.spimous  for 
that  which  IS  the  subject  of  vulgar  discourse;  but  we  can  be  listimuisM 
only  for  that  which  is  really  good  and  praiseworthy. 

Lovers  of  fame  are  sometimes  able  to  render  themselves  eminent  for 
or  absurdities,  but  nothing  is  more  gratifying  to  a  man  than  to 
render  himself  z/toeous  for  his  professional  skill.   It  is  the  lot  of  few  to 
be  noted,  and  these  few  are  seldom  to  be  envied 

Water  and  snow  amxxss  by  the  continual  accession  of  fresh  quantities , 
tne  ice  accumulates  m  the  river  until  it  is  frozen  over. 

The  industrious  man  amasses  guineas  and  accumulates  wealth. 
V  jong  been  celebrated  for  its  health;  and  many  individuals 

resort  thither  for  the  benefit  of  then- sa/«6j%  ^ 

The  places  destined  for  the  education  of  youth  should  be  salutani ;  the 
diet  of  the  young  rather  than  delicate,  and  in  all  their  disoMers 

care  should  be  taken  to  administer  the  most  wholesmie  remedies. 

A  nation  may  be  ezfram^ran^  of  its  resources,  and  a  government  may  be 
Vrojv^e  of  the  public  money;  but  no  individual  should  be  lavish  of  what  is 
not  his  own,  nor  prodigal  of  what  he  gives  another. 

There  are  but  few  remarlcahle  things ;  but  many  things  are  extraardznarv 

A  man  may  have  a  distaste  for  his  ordinary  occupations  without  any 
apparent  cause  ;  and  after  long  illness  he  will  frequently  take  a  dislike  to 
the  tood  or  the  amusement  which  before  afforded  him  pleasure 

It  is  good  to  suppress  unfounded  disgusts;  it  is  difficult  to  overcome  a 
fJi^f  '  and  It  is  advisable  to  divert  our  attention  from  objects 
calculated  to  create  distaste.^ 


*  Words  are  sometimes  similar  in  sound,  although  different  in  spelHnff 

J?i  3  .^^'^  '^S^''^  '^'^        site;  raisl  JIraz? 

and  isle;  scent,  cent,  and  sent,  &c.  Although  these  are  not  technicallv 
speaking,  to  be  considered  as  synonymous,  they  may  be  herrmSiS  fi 
order  to  caution  the  student  with  regard  to  the  use  of  them  The  ve?bs  £ 
and  lay,  also,  although  entirely  different  in  meaning,  ha^  some  parts  in 

S  tLm  ^^  «  i  ?f^i  l'''''^^^  by  the  pupil,  will  find  a  large  collection 
tMs  H^  Prft/tw  recently  puDlished  by  a  distinguished  teacher  of 

tWr^/hV  S  ^  M  Companion  to  Snelling  Books,  in  which  the  Or 

^nS^^/^^^-^^^^T^  "^^"5^  thousand  Words,  most  liable  to  be  mis- 
BpeUed  and  misused,  are  impressed  upon  the  Memory  by  a  regular  Series 

B  Fow  f  ^^^'T'll  ^^^^  eminent  teacher,  Sir.  wS 

J5.  J?owle.   See  also  the  exercises  on  words,  page  17 


50 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


XVIL 

METHODS  01*  INVEBSION  AM)  TRAJ5TSP0SITI0N. 

The  same  idea  may  be  expressed  in  a  great  variety  of 
ways  by  the  methods  of  inversion  and  transposition  suggested 
in  the  following  examples. 

Example  \st. 

By  changing  active  verbs  into  passive,  and  the  contrary ; 
thus.  By  the  active  verb.  A  multitude  of  delighted  guests 
soon  filled  the  places  of  those  who  refused  to  come.  By  the 
passive  verb.  The  places  of  those  who  refused  to  come  were 
soon  filled  by  a  multitude  of  delighted  guests. 

Example  2d. 

By  using  the  case  absolute,  instead  of  the  nominative  case 
and  its  verb,  and  the  contrary;  as.  The  class  having  re- 
cited their  lessons,  the  teacher  dismissed  them.  The  class 
recited  their  lessons  and  the  teacher  dismissed  them.  Of  these 
two  sentences  the  former  is  preferable,  because  it  preserves 
the  unity  of  the  sentence,  which  requires  that  the  subject  or 
nominative  should  be  changed  as  little  as  possible  during  the 
course  of  the  sentence.  Another  recommendation  of  the  for- 
mer expression  is,  that  it  throws  out  the  conjunction,  which 
should  never  be  unnecessarily  introduced  into  a  sentence. 

Example  3d. 

Infinitive  mood  or  substantive  and  participial  phrases  in- 
stead of  nominative  or  objective  nouns,  and  the  reverse  ;  as. 
His  having  been  unfortunate  is  no  disgrace ;  instead  of.  His 
misfortunes  are  no  disgrace. 

Diligence,  industry,  and  proper  improvement  of  time  are 
material  duties  of  the  young  ;  or.  To  be  diligent,  industrious, 
and  properly  to  improve  time  are  material  duties  of  the  young. 

Example  Mh. 

By  the  negation  or  affirmation  of  the  contrary  ;  as,  Solon 
the  Athenian  effected  a  great  change  in  the  govetmment  of  luJ 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


51 


country.  Solon,  the  Athenian,  effected  no  small  change  in  the 
government  of  his  country. 

The  beauty  of  the  earth  is  as  conspicuous  as  the  grandeur 
of  the  heavens.  The  beauty  of  the  earth  is  not  less  conspicU' 
ous  than  the  grandeur  of  the  heavens. 

Example  hth. 

By  reversing  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  sentence,  with  a 
negative  adverb ;  as,  The  grandeur  of  the  heavens  is  not  more 
conspicuous  than  the  beauty  of  the  earth. 

The  ^legation  of  the  contrary.  *  The  beauty  of  the  earth  is 
not  less  conspicuous  than  the  grandeur  of  the  heavens. 

By  a  comparison.  There  is  as  much  beauty  in  the  earth, 
as  there  is  grandeur  in  the  heavens. 

By  an  expletive  cause.  There  is  no  less  beaut/  in  the 
earth  than  grandeur  in  the  heavens. 

Example  Qth, 

By  changing  the  participial  phrases  into  a  personal  verb 
with  a  conjunction  ;  as,  Charles,  having  been  deprived  of  the 
help  of  tutors,  neglected  his  studies.  Charles  was  deprived 
of  the  help  of  tutors,  and  therefore  he  neglected  his  studies. 

Example  1th. 

Cfhange  of  the  nominative  and  verh  into  an  infinitive 
phrase  ;  as.  He  sacrificed  his  future  ease  and  reputation  that 
he  might  enjoy  present  pleasure.  He  sacrificed  his  future 
ease  and  reputation  to  enjoy  present  pleasure. 

Example  8th. 

The  infinitive  changed  into  an  objective  noun;  as.  Canst 
thou  expect  to  escape  the  hand  of  vengeance  ?  Canst  thou 
expect  an  escape  from  the  hand  of  vengeance  ? 

Or  into  a  finite  verb  with  its  nominative  ;  as,  Canst  thou 
expect  that  thou  shalt  escape  the  hand  of  vengeance  ? 


*  The  negative  adjective  is  generally  more  elegant  than  the  negativQ 
adverb.  Thus,  "I  was  unable^'''  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  expression, 
'I was  not  able:'  '^Invisible;'  rather  than  ''^not  visible;  "  '■'Incomistent:* 
rather  than  "  not  consistent^''  &c. 


52 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Example  Siih. 

Participial  nouns  converted  into  common  nouns,  and  the 
contrary  ;  as,  Providence  alone  can  order  the  changing  of 
times  and  seasons.  Providence  alone  can  order  the  changes 
of  times  and  seasons. 

Example  V)th, 

The  change  of  the  verh,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverh,  into  a 
noun  and  the  contrary  ;  and  the  conversion  of  a  noun  into  a 
pronoun  ;  as,  Idleness,  ease,  and  prosperity  tend  to  generate 
foUj  and  vice.  The  tendency  of  idleness,  ease,  and  pros- 
perity is  to  generate  folly  and  vice.  Idleness,  ease,  and 
prosperity  have  a  tendency  toward  the  generation  of  folly. 
Folly  and  vice  are  too  generally  the  consequences  of  idle- 
ness, ease,  and  prosperity. 

Simple  language  always  pleases  most.  Simplicity  of  lan- 
guage always  pleases  most.  "We  please  most  when  we  speak 
simply. 

Those  persons  who,  &c.    They  who,  &c. 

Example  Wth. 

The  conversion  of  an  active  or  a  passive  verh  into  a  neuter 
verb  luith  an  adjective  ;  as.  Sobriety  of  mind  suits  the  present 
state  of  man.  Sobriety  of  mind  is  suitable  to  the  present  state 
of  man. 

Example  12th. 

By  the  conversion  of  a  declaration  into  an  obligation,-  with 
a  corresponding  change  of  words. 

Declaration.  Man's  present  state  renders  sobriety  of  mind 
highly  becoming. 

Obligation.  Man  in  his  present  state  should  be  charac- 
terized by  sobriety  of  mind. 

Example  ISth. 

13y  a  noun  in  apposition  to  avoid  the  use  of  the  conjunction 
and.  Hope  is  the  sustainer  of  the  mind,  and  supports  us 
under  many  a  burden.  Hope,  the  sustainer  of  the  mind, 
supports  us  under  many  a  burden. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


53 


JExample  lUh, 

By  the  preposition  and  its  objective  case,  instead  of  the  poS' 
sessive  ;  as,  The  moon's  mild  radiance  and  the  sun's  resplen 
dent  brightness  are  objects  which,  &c.  The  mild  radiance  of 
the  moon  and  the  resplendent  brightness  of  the  sun,  *  &c. 

The  repetition  of  and  f  avoided  by  the  use  of  the  preposi^ 
tion  ;  as,  God  has  given  us  senses  to  enjoy  all  these  beautiful 
objects,  and  reason  to  guide  us  in  the  use  of  them.  God  has 
given  us  senses  to  enjoy  all  these  beautiful  objects,  with  rea- 
son to  guide  us  in  the  use  of  them. 

By  the  use  of  the  potential  mode  instead  of  the  infinitive  ; 
God  has  given  us  senses  that  we  may  enjoy  all  these  beauti- 
ful objects,  with  reason,  &c. 

An  infinitive  phrase  instead  of  a  nominative  noun  ;  To  do 
justly,  to  love  mercy,  and  to  walk  humbly,  are  duties  enjoined 
by  Christianity.  Justice,  mercy,  and  humility,  are  duties 
enjoined  by  Christianity. 

The  negative  adverb  with  the  conjunction  but ;  We  can  ob 
serve  the  exquisite  skill  of  the  Artificer  in  all  that  we  see 
around  us.  We  cannoi  but  observe  the  exquisite  skill  of  the 
Artificer  in  all  that  we  see  around  us. 

It  is  to  be  remarked,  that  although  some  examples  have 
been  given,  in  which  the  participial  noun  is  used,  yet  when 
there  is  a  common  noun  from  the  same  root,  of  similar  mean- 
ing, the  participial  noun  should  be  avoided.  Thus,  "  The 
habit  of  deceiving  "  is  not  so  elegant  an  expression  as  "  Habits 
of  deception." 

Example  l^th. 

Besolution  of  the  personal  pronoun,  with  the  conjunction 
and  into  the  relative  pronoun  ;  thus,  We  can  learn  a  lesson  of 
resignation,  and  it  will  prepare  us  for  that  happy  home  where 
the  weary  are  at  rest.   We  can  learn  a  lesson  of  resignation, 


*  It  is  deemed  very  inelegant  to  construct  a  sentence  with  many  posses 
Bivc  nouns,  or  with  many  objectives  governed  by  the  preposition  ff.  Thus, 
the  sentence,  The  extent  o/the  prerogative  o/the  King  o/ England,  or,  The 
King  of  England's  prerogative's  extent,  would  be  better  expressed  thus, 
The  extent  of  the  King  of  England's  prerogative. 

t  The  use  of  the  conjunction  and  may  often  be  avoided  by  dividing  long 
eentences  into  short  ones. 

5* 


54 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


which  win  prepare  us  for  that  happy  home  where  the  weary 
are  at  rest.  ^ 

Example  IQth. 

By  the  use  of  the  present  or  perfect  participle  instead  of 
the  verb ;  as,  He  was  called  to  the  exercise  of  the  supreme 
power  at  a  very  early  age,  and  evinced  sl  great  knowledge  of 
government  and  la^'s,  and  was  regarded  by  mankind  with  a 
respect  which  is  seldom  bestowed  on  one  so  young. 

In  this  sentence  the  use  of  the  participles  removes  one  of 
the  conjunctions,  which  young  writers  are  very  apt  to  repeat 
unnecessarily ;  thus.  Called  to  the  exercise  of  the  supreme 
power  at  a  very  early  age,  and  evincing  a  great  knowledge 
of  government  and  laws,  he  was  regarded  by  mankind  with  a 
respect  which  is  seldom  bestowed  on  one  so  young. 

By  the  use  of  the  participles  instead  of  the  relative  clause, 
as,  The  smiles  that  encourage  severity  of  judgement  hide 
malice  and  insincerity."  Smiles  encouraging  severity  of 
judgement  hide  mahce  and  insincerity. 

I'or  the  sake  of  emphasis,  or  to  gratify  a  taste  for  singu- 
larity, some  writers  have  adopted  the  poetical  style  in  prose, 
placing  the  verh  before  its  nominative  ;  thus.  When  we  go,  for 
go  we  must,  &c.  Proceed  we  now  to  the  second  subject  of  our 
consideration.  Recognize  we  here  the  hand  of  an  Almighty 
power. 

In  some  instances,  perhaps  not  strictly  proper,  we  find  the 
definite  article  placed  before  the  relative  pronoun ;  as.  These 
things,  the  which  you  have  seen  and  understood,  &c. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  that  in  all  the  changes  suggested  in  the 
foregoing  models,  there  must  be  some  slight  change  in  the 
idea,  but  still  the  identity  of  the  thought  is  sufficiently  pre- 
served in  all  the  changes  suggested.  * 


*  Unaer  the  head  of  variety  of  expression,  may  be  noticed  some  few 
peculiarities  and  improprieties,  which  are  sometimes  heard,  especially  in 
colloquial  intercourse,  and  which,  in  some  instances,  are  not  notioed  by  any 
|rammatical  authority.  And  first,  the  improper  use  of  if  for  whether,  as 
follows:  "She  asked  me  I  would  go  with  her."  It  should  be,  "She 
asked  me  whether  I  would  go,"  &c.  Again,  the  improper  use  of  me  for  my 
self  and  of  ymi  for  yotirself  As,  I  am  going  to  wash  me.  Do  you  intend 
to  wash  you?  It  should  be  myself  and  yourself  Again,  The  use  of  as  for 
that;  as,  I  do  not  know  as  I  shall  go.  I  do  not  know  as  I  could  teU  when. 
It  should  be  I  do  not  know  that  I  shaU  go.    [  do  not  know  that  1 

eould  teU  when.  Again,  The  use  of  mvy  and  got  with  a  negative  ;  as,  I  have 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  55 

Examples  of  some  of  the  preceding  methods  of  Inversion 
and  transposition. 

Example  1st. 

The  mind  is  sustained  by  hope. 
Hope  sustains  the  mind. 
Hope  is  the  sustainer  of  the  mind. 
The  sustainer  of  the  mind  is  hope. 

Example  2d, 

Idleness,  ease,  and  prosperity,  tend  to  generate  folly  and 
vice. 

The  tendency  of  idleness,  ease,  and  prosperity  is  to  gener- 
ate folly  and  vice. 

Idleness,  ease,  and  prosperity  have  a  tendency,  &c. 


not  got  any  book.  It  would  be  better  to  say,  I  have  no  book.  Such  words 
2i&  fetch  for  bring,  sweat  ^0Y  perspiration,  and  many  others  of  a  similar  char- 
acter, are  considered,  to  say  the  least,  inelegant,  and  are  to  be  avoided. 
The  word  so  is  sometimes  heard  in  use  for  therefore ;  as,  Charles  did  not 
wish  to  go,  so  I  did  not  urge  him.  It  should  be,  Charles  did  not  wish  to 
go,  therefore  I  did  not  urge  him.  Other  is  sometimes  improperly 
followed  by  hiit  instead  of  than  ;  as,  I  saw  no  other  but  him.  It  should  be, 
I  saw  no  other  than  him.  We  sometimes  hear  the  demonstrative  pronoun, 
improperly  used  for  the  personal  pronoun ;  as,  Those  who  hear  must  obey. 
It  should  be.  They  who  hear  must  obey.  We  sometimes  heai  such  expres- 
sions as  this :  I  know  of  hardly  \or  scarcely]  a  passage,  &c.  It  would  be 
better  to  say,  I  know  of  no  passage,  &c.  The  past  tenses  of  the  word  Ioaj 
(to  place)  are  very  frequently  and  improperly  used  for  the  corre^Donding 
tenses  of  lie  (to  He  down).  Thus,  The  water  laid  in  the  pool.  It  sh.  uld  be, 
lay  in  the  pool.  You  have  laid  abed  too  long.  It  should  be,  You  have  lain, 
&c.  Again,  We  frequently  find  a  want  of  correspondence  in  the  different 
parts  of  a  sentence,  as  follows  :  He  did  not  mention  Leonora,  nor  that  her 
father  was  dead.  It  is  better  to  say,  He  did  not  mention  Leonora,  nor  the 
death  of  her  father.    These  expressions  fall  under  grammatical  rule. 

In  sentences  where  the  negative  adverb  occurs,  it  should  be  followed  by 
the  negative  conjunction.  Thus,  "  Thou  canst  not  tell  wheuv'.e  it  cometh 
and  whither  it  goeth,"  should  be,  Thou  canst  not  tell  whence  it  cometh  nor 
whither  it  goeth. 

In  the  use  of  prepositions  we  find  many  manifest  improprieties.  As  no 
certain  rule  can  be  laid  down  with  regard  to  them,  a  few  examples  are  pre- 
sented, to  show  whaK  prepositions  may  be  properly  used  with  certain  words> 
It  may,  however,  be  emarked  that  the  same  preposition  that  follows  a  verb 
or  adverb,  should  generally  follow  the  noun,  &c.,  which  is  derived  from 
it,  as,  confide  m,  c-_afldence  in;  disposed  to  tyrannize,  a  disposition  to 
tyranny,  &c. 

Accuse  o/ falsehood.       Differ /ro?re.  Needo/ 
Accused  by  his  frienl     Difficulty  in.  Observance  of. 

Acquit  of.  Diminution  of  Prejudice  against. 


56 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COIVIPOSITION. 


P  Dlly  and  vice  are  too  frequently  the  consequences  of  idlft 
ness;  ease,  and  prosperity.  * 

Exercises  on  the  principles  of  the  preceding  methods  of  Inver 
sion  and  Transposition. 

Providence  alone  can  order  the  changing  of  the  seasons. 
Can  you  expect  to  be  exempted  from  these  troubles  which  all  must 
puffer  ?  • 

Earth  shall  claim  thy  growth,  to  be  resolved  to  earth  again. 
That  I  may  convince  you  of  my  sincerity,  I  will  repeat  the  assertion. 
Sobriety  of  mind  is  not  unsuitable  to  the  present  state  of  man. 
He  had  no  little  difficulty  in  accomplishing  the  undertaking. 
A  large  part  of  the  company  were  pleased  with  his  remarks. 
Hope  sustains  the  mind. 

Indeed,  if  we  could  arrest  time,  and  strike  off  the  wheels  of  his  chariot, 
and,  like  Joshua,  bid  the  sun  stand  still,  and  make  opportunity  tany  as 
long  as  we  had  occasion  for  it,  this  were  something  to  excuse  our  delay 
or  at  least  to  mitigate  and  abate  the  folly  and  unreasonableness  of  it. 


*  The  word  it  commonly  called  the  neuter  pronoun,  is  sometimes  very 
serviceable  in  enabling  us  to  alter  the  arrangement.  Thus,  It  is  hope  that 
sustains  the  mind.  It  is  by  hope  that  the  mind  is  sustained,  &c.  See 
Wltately''s  Rhetoric^  Fart  M,  Chap.  2d,  Fart  llth. 


Adapted  to. 
Agreeable  to^ 
Averse  to. 
Bestow  tipon. 
Boast  or  brag  of. 
Call  on. 
Change  for. 
Confide  in. 
Conformable  to. 
Compliance  with. 
Consonant  to. 
Conversant  with'^  a 
person,  in  a  thing. 
Dependent  upon. 
Derogation  from. 
Die  of  or  by. 


Disappointed  in  or  of.  f 
Disapprove  of. 
Discouragement  to. 
Dissent  from. 
Eager  in. 
Engaged  in. 
Exception  from. 
Expert  at  or  in. 
Fall  under. 
Free  from. 
Glad  of  ox  at.  % 
Independent  of  ox  on. 
Insist  tcpon. 
Made  of. 
Marry  to. 
Martyr  for. 


Profit  by. 

Provide  with,  for ^  or 

against. 
Eeconcile  to. 
Eeplete  with. 
Eesemblance  to. 
Eesolve  on. 
Eeduce  under  or  to.  § 
Eegard  to  or  for. 
Swerve  from. 
Taste  of  or  for.  [j 
Think  of  or  on. 
True  to. 
Wait  on. 
Worthy  of.  *^ 


*  Addison  has,  "conversant  among  the  writings,"  &c.,  and,  "conversant  abmi 
worldly  affairs. ' '   Generally  speaking,  ' '  conversant  with  ' '  is  preferable. 

t  We  are  disappointed  of  a  thing  when  we  do  not  get  it ;  and  disappointed  in  it 
when  we  have  it,  and  find  that  it  does  not  answer  our  expectations. 

t  "  Glad  o/,"  when  the  cause  of  joy  is  something  gained  or  possessed;  and  "glad" 
a«,"  when  something  befalls  another;  as,  "Jonah  was  glad  0/ the  gourd;"  '^Ho 
that  is  glad  at  calamities,"  &c. 

§  "  Reduce  under,''  is  to  conquer  or  subdue." 

H  A  taste  of  a  thing,  implies  actual  enjovment  of  it ;  but  a  taste/or  it,  implies  only 
a  capacity  for  enjoyment ;  as,  "  When  we  have  had  a  taste  of  the  pleasures  of  virtue, 
we  can  have  no  taste /or  those  of  vice." 

**  Many  of  these  woi'ds  sometimes  take  other  prepositions  after  them,  to  express 
various  meanings;  thus,  for  example,  "Fall  in,  to  comply;"  "Fall  off,  to  for- 
Kake  ;  "  "  Fall  om^,  to  happen;"  "Fall  uj)on.  to  attack;"  "  FalWo."  to  begin  ea 
j:eriy,"  &c. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


67 


The  records  of  Scripture  exhibit  no  character  more  rcaaarkable  and 
nstructive  than  that  of  the  Patriarch  Joseph.  He  is  one  who  is  beheld 
v)y  us,  tried  in  all  the  vicissitudes  of  fortune  5  from  the  condition  of  a 
slave  rising  to  be  ruler  of  the  land  of  Egypt ;  and  in  every  station,  favor 
is  acquired  by  him  Avith  God  and  man,  by  his  wisdom  and  virtue.  When 
be  was  overseer  of  Potiphar's  house  he  proved  his  fidelity  by  strong 
temptations,  which  were  honorably  resisted  by  him. 

When  the  artifices  of  a  false  woman  threw  him  into  prison,  he  was  soon 
i-endcred  conspicuous  even  in  that  dark  mansion  by  his  integrity  and 
prudence.  ^  . 

Poetry  is  sublime  when  any  great  and  good  afibction,  as  piety  or  pat- 
riotism, is  awakened  in  the  mind  by  it.  .     .     ,  , 

But  in  this  dark  and  bewildered  state  an  opposite  du-ection  is  taken  by 
the  aspiring  tendency  of  our  nature  and  a  very  misplaced  ambition  is  fed 
by  it. 

The  mind  is  sustained  by  hope. 

Idleness,  ease,  and  prosperity  tend  to  generate  folly  and  vice.  ^ 
The  beauty  displayed  in  the  earth  equals  the  grandeur  conspicuous  In 
the  heavens. 

Solon,  the  Athenian,  effected  a  great  change  in  the  government  ot  his 

^°The"^Spartans  considered  war  as  the  great  business  of  life.  For  that 
reason  they  trained  their  children  to  laborious  exercise,  and  instilled  into 
their  minds  the  principles  of  temperance  and  frugality. 

He  sacrificed  his  future  ease  and  reputation  that  he  might  enjoy  present 
pleasure. 

When  virtue  abandons  us,  and  conscience  reproaches  us,  we  become 
terrified  with  imaginary  evils. 

Expect  no  more  from  the  world  than  it  is  able  to  afford  you. 

Canst  thou  expect  to  escape  the  hand  of  vengeance  ? 

Providence  alone  can  order  the  changing  of  times  and  seasons. 

She  who  studies  her  glass  neglects  her  own  heart. 

It  is  a  favorite  opinion  with  some,  that  certain  modes  of  instruction  are 
more  profitable  than  others,  or  at  least  that  there  are  some  branches  of 
study  which  give  more  full  and  constant  employment  to  the  intellectual 
faculties. 

While  many  considerations  allure  the  young  and  enterprising  to  com- 
mercial pursuits,  the  amount  of  capital  which  is  needed,  tends  to  limit  the 
number  of  those  who  thus  employ  themselves. 

The  eye  could  scarcely  reach  the  lofty  and  noble  ceilmg,  the  sides  be- 
ing regularly  formed  with  spars,  and  the  whole  place  presenting  the  idea 
of  a  magnificent  theatre,  that  was  illuminated  with  a  vast  profusion  of 
Hghts.  . 

An  endless  variety  of  characters,  dispositions,  and  passions,  diversifies 
tj'\e  wide  circle  of  human  affairs. 

A  crowd  that  obstructed  his  passage  awakened  him  from  the  tranquillity 
of  meditation.  He  raised  his  eyes  and  saw  the  chief  vizier,  who  had  re- 
turned from  the  divan  and  was  entering  his  palace.  , 

Let  us  remember  that  of  small  incidents  the  system  of  human  life  is 
cK^ifly  composed. 

Her  temper  and  her  capacity  were  the  foundation  of  her  singular  talents 
for  government.  She  was  endowed  with  a  great  command  over  herself; 
and  she  soon  obtained  an  uncontrolled  ascendancy  over  the  people 


58 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  C05IP0SITI0TT. 


Few  sovereigns  of  England  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  more  difficult 
circumstances,  and  by  none  was  the  government  uniformly  conducted 
so  successfully  and  felicitiously. 

The  enemy  was  subdued  and  the  garrison  was  silenced,  and  the  victori- 
ous  army  returned  triumphing. 

To  be  docile  and  attentive  is  required  of  the  young. 

Miss  Hannah  Moore's  writings  have  produced  no  small  influence  on 
the  morals  of  the  people. 

The  elegance  of  her  manners  is  as  conspicuous  as  the  beauty  of  her 
person. 

He  took  great  pains  that  he  might  obtain  the  reward. 
Gentle  manners  always  please  us  most. 
Strong  expressions  suit  only  strong  feelings. 

Providence  has  furnished  us  with  talents  for  performing  our  duties  and 
reason  to  guide  in  their  performance. 
We  can  see  the  wisdom  of  God  in  all  his  works. 


XVIIL 

FOEMATION  OF  COMPOUND  SENTENCES  FROM  SIMPLE 
ONES. 

In  every  composition  there  should  be  a  due  intermixture 
of  long  and  short  sentences.  For  this  reason  the  student 
ehould  understand  how  to  form  compound  sentences  from  sim- 
ple ones.  *  In  the  prosecution  of  this  work,  he  must  recollect 
that  in  every  sentence  there  must  be  some  connecting  principle 
among  the  parts.  Some  one  object  must  reign  and  be  predomi- 
nant. There  is  commonly  in  every  well-formed  sentence,  some 
person  or  thing  which  is  the  governing  word,  and  this  should 
be  continued  so,  if  possible,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of 
the  sentence. 

Another 'principle,  which  he  must  also  bear  in  mind,  is  that 


*  Professor  Newman  says,  in  his  Ehetoric,  that  "  Vivacity  of  Style  is 
sometimes  attamed  by  the  omission  of  conjunctions  and  the  consequent 
division  of  the  discourse  into  short  sentences."  The  following  example 
illustrates  his  remark  ; 

"  As  the  storm  increased  with  the  night,  the  sea  was  lashed  into  tremen 
dous  confusion,  and  there  was  a  fearful  sullen  sound  of  rushing  waves  and 
broken  surges,  while  deep  called  unto  deep." 

"  The  storm  increased  with  the  night.  The  sea  was  lashed  into  tremen- 
dous confusion.  There  was  a  fearful  sullen  sound  of  rushing;  waves  and 
broken  surges.  Deep  called  unto  deep." 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


59 


which  is  expressed  in  Dr.  Blair's  second  rule  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  unity  of  a  sentence,  namely  :  "  Never  to  crowd  into 
one  sentence,  things  which  have  so  httle  connection,  that  they 
could  bear  to  be  divided  into  two  or  more  sentences." 

Tb^  violation  of  this  rule  tends  so  much  to  perplex  and 
Dbsci^re,  that  it  is  safer  to  err  by  too  many  short  sentences, 
iian  by  one  that  is  overloaded  and  embarrassed. 

Example. 

The  Sultan  was  dangerously  wounded. 
Thy  conveyed  him  to  his  tent. 

Upon  hearing  of  the  defeat  of  his  troops,  they  put  him  into 
Mtter. 

The  litter  transported  him  to  a  place  of  safety. 
The  place  of  safety  was  at  the  distance  of  about  fifteen 
IfAigues. 

Compound  sentence  formed  from  tlie  preceding  simple  ones. 

The  Sulten  being  dangerously  wounded,  they  carried  him  to  his  tent; 
and  upon  hearing  of  the  defeat  of  his  troops,  they  put  him  into  a  litter, 
which  transported  him  to  a  place  of  safety,  at  the  distance  of  about  fifteen 
leagues. 

This  sentence  will  be  better  if  it  be  constructed  as  follows 
so  that  there  shall  be  but  one  governing  word  from  the  begin- 
ning to  the  end  of  the  sentence.    Thus  : 

The  Sultan  being  dangerously  wounded,  was  carried  to  his  tent;  and 
on  heai'ing  of  the  defeat  of  his  troops,  was  put  into  a  litter,  and  trans- 
ported to  a  place  of  safety,  about  fifteen  leagues  distant. 

The  following  rules  for  the  arrangement  of  woxds  should 
be  particularly  observed,  in  the  composition  of  compound 
sentences. 

Rule  1st.  The  words  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  mark  as  distinctly  aa 
possible,  by  their  location^  the  relation  of  the  s^fveral  parts  to  each  other. 

This  rule  requires  that  the  verb  should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to 
the  nominative ;  that  the  object  should  follow  the  vei-b  in  close  succession, 
that  adverbs  should  be  placed  near  the  word  whose  signification  they 
affect,  that  the  preposition  should  be  immediately  followed  by  the  word 
which  it  governs,  and  that  pronouns  should  be  placed  in  such  a  position 
fts  to  leave  no  doubt  in  the  mind,  with  regard  to  their  antecedents. 

Rule  2d.  When  a  curcumstance  is  thrown  into  the  midst  of  a  sentence 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

It  should  not  be  placed  between  the  capital  clauses,  nor  so  as  to  bar- 
oosely,  but  should  be  distinctly  determined  to  its  connexion  by  the  posi 
tion  which  It  occupies.  ^ 

The  foUowing  sentence,  composed  of  several  simple  sentences,  is  badly 
arranged.  The  parts  in  Italic  show  what  the  '  cu-cumstance '  is  which  is 
thrown  mto  the  midst  of  the  sentence. 

;  The  minister  who  grows  less  by  his  elevation,  like  a  statue  placed  on  a 
mighty  pedestal,  wiU  always  have  his  jealousy  strong  about  him.' 

In  this  sentence,  a  beautiful  simile,  by  its  improper  location,  is  not  only 
deprived  of  its  effect,  but  is  an  encumbrance.  Let  a  slight  alteration  of 
the  arrangement  be  made,  and  the  simile  is  restored  to  its  beauty,  and 
becomes  highly  ornamental.  Thus: 

The  minister,  who,  Hke  a  statue  placed  on  a  mighty  pedestal,  grows 
less  by  his  elevation,  wiU  always  have  his  jealousy  strong  about  him. 

Rule  Zd.  Every  sentence  should  present  to  the  mind  a  distinct  picture, 
or  single  group  of  ideas.  For  this  reason,  the  scene  and  the  circumstances 
cS^S    "^l  compass  of  a  sentence  must  not  be  unnecessarilj 

In  the  formation  of  compound  sentences,  therefore,  from  simple  ones, 
wliatever  cannot  be  grouped  so  as  to  form  an  harmonious  picture,  should 
be  presented  in  a  separate  sentence.  The  following  sentence  shows  very 
clearly  the  bad  effects  of  a  change  from  person  to  person 

•  '  5®  left  to  shift  for  themselves,  and  daily  harassed  by  cruel 
inroads  from  the  Picts,  were  forced  to  call  in  the  Saxons  for  their  defence, 
who  consequently  reduced  the  great  part  of  the  island  to  their  power, 
drove  the  Britons  into  the  most  remote  and  mountainous  parts,  and  the  rest 
ot  the  country,  in  customs,  religion  and  language,  became  wholly  Saxon.' 

Ihis  comphcated  sentence,  by  means  of  some  slight  alterations,  and  a 
^®^®^^^1  sentences,  will  appear  clear  and  accurate ;  thus, 

•  f  Britons,  left  to  shift  for  themselves,  and  daily  harassed  by  the  cruel 
mroads  of  the  Picts,  were  forced  to  call  in  the  Saxons  for  their  defence. 
But  these  {the  baxons)  soon  reduced  the  greatest  part  of  the  island  under 
their  own  power,  and  drove  the  Britons  to  the  most  remote  and  mountain- 
ous parts.  The  consequence  was,  that  the  rest  of  the  country  became 
inhabited  by  a  people  m  language,  manners  and  religion  wholly  Saxon. 

Rule  4th.  The  too  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  pronouns  referring  to 
different  antecedents  should  be  avoided. 

The  reason  for  this  rule  is,  that  such  words  being  substitutes,  can  be 
used  with  advantage  only  when  that  to  which  the  pronoun  refers  is  quite 
obvious.    The  following  sentence  exemplifies  this  remark : 

'  One  may  have  an  air  which  proceeds  from  a  just  sufficiency  and  knowl- 
edge of  the  matter  before  him,  ivhich  may  naturally  produce  some  motions 
ot  his  head  and  body,  ivhich  might  become  the  bench  better  than  the  bar' 
^  J®^*®^^®  pronoun  'which' is  used  three  times;  and  each  time 
with  a  different  antecedent.  The  first  time  that  it  is  used  its  antecedent 
IS  air,  the  second  time  it  is  sufficiency  and  knowledge,  and  the  third,  motions 
oj  the  head  and  body.  The  confusion  thus  introduced  into  the  sentence 
may  be  avoided  by  employing  this  for  the  second  which,  and  such  as  for 
the  third :  thus, 

"  One  may  have  an  air  which  proceeds  from  a  just  sufficiencv  of  knowl- 
edge of  the  matter  before  him,  and  this  may  naturally  produce  some 
motions  of  the  head,  such  as  might  become  the  bench  better  than  the  bar. 

Rule  5th.  All  redundant  words  and  clauses  should  be  avoided. 


AIDS  TO  ENGXISH  COSIPOSITION. 


61 


The  reason  for  this  rule  is,  that  whatever  does  not  add  to  the  meaning 
of  a  sentence  must  be  useless  if  not  hurtful* 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  remarked  in  the  words  of  Archbishop  Whately, 
It  is  a  useful  admonition  to  young  writers,  that  thev  should  always  at' 
tempt  to  recast  a  sentence  that  does  not  please ;  altering  the  arrangement 
and  entire  structure  of  it,  instead  of  merely  seeking  to  change  one  word 
for  another.  This  will  give  a  great  advantage  in  point  of  copiousness 
also ;  for  there  may  be,  suppose  a  substantive  "(or  noun)  which,  either  be- 
cause it  does  not  fully  express  our  meaning,  or  for  some  other  reason,  we 
wish  to  remove,  but  can  find  no  other  to  supply  its  place.  But  the  object 
may  perhaps  be  easily  accomplished  by  means  of  a  verb,  adverb,  or  other 
part  of  speech,  the  substitution  of  which  implies  an  alteration  in  the  con- 
struction. It  is  an  exercise,  accordingly,  which  may  be  commended  as 
highly  conducive  to  the  improvement  of  style,  to  practise  casting  a  sen- 
tence into  a  variety  of  different  forms. 


XIX. 


OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.! 

The  English  Language  consists  of  about  thirty-eight  thousand  words. 
This  includes,  of  course,  not  only  radical  words,  but  all  derivatives  5  ex- 
cept the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs ;  to  which  must  be  added  some 
few  terms,  which,  though  set  down  in  the  dictionaries,  are  either  obsolete 
or  have  never  ceased  to  be  considered  foreign.  Of  these,  about  twenty- 
three  thousand,  or  nearly  five-eighths,  are  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin.  The 
majority  of  the  rest,  in  what  proportion  we  cannot  say,  are  Latin  and 
Greek;  Latin,_ however,  has  the  larger  share.  The  names  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  objects  of  sense,  in  other  words,  the  terms  which  occur  most 
frequently  in  discourse,  or  which  recall  the  most  vivid  conceptions,  ara 
Anglo-Saxon.  Thus,  for  example,  the  names  of  the  most  striking  ob- 
jects in  visible  nature,  of  the  chief  agencies  at  work  there,  and  of  th« 
changes  which  we  pass  over  it,  are  Anglo-Saxon.  This  language  has 
given  names  to  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars ;  to  three 
out  of  the  four  elements,  earth,  fire,  and  water;  three  out  of  the  four  sea- 
sons, spring,  summer,  and  winter;  and,  indeed,  to  all  the  natural  divisions 
of  time,  except  one ;  as,  day,  night,  morning,  evening,  tv/ilight,  noon, 
mid-day,  midnight,  sunrise,  sunset ;  some  of  which  are  amongst  the  most 
^  poetical  terms  we  have.  To  the  same  language  we  are  indebted  for  the 
names  of  light,  heat,  cold,  frost,  rain,  snow,  hail,  sleet,  thunder,  lightning, 
as.  well  as  almost  all  those  objects  which  form  the  component  parts  of  the 
beautiful  in  external  scenery,  as  sea  and  land,  hill  and  dale,  wood  and 
stream,  &c.  It  is  from  this  language  we  derive  the  words  which  are  ex- 
pressive of  the  earliest  and  dearest  connexions,  and  the  strongest  and  most 
Powerful  feelings  gf ^nature ;  and  which  are,  consequently,  invested  witi 

*  See  page  71,  where  the  term  Eedundancy  is  separately  considerf>d. 
toon    0^^°°''^'^^        S^"^®^     ^^'0"^  tlie  "  Edinburgh  Keview,"  sf  Octobei 
I5«y.    bee,  also,  pages  34  to  40,  on  the  subject  of  Derivation. 
0 


62 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


our  oldest  and  most  complicated  associations.  It  is  this  language  which 
has  given  us  names  for  father,  mother,  husband,  wife,  brother,  sister,  son, 
daughter,  child,  home,  kindred,  friends.  It  is  this  wliich  has  furnished  ua 
with  the  greater  part  of  those  metonymies,  and  other  figurative  expres- 
sions, by  which  we  represent  to  the  imagination,  and  that  in  a  single 
word,  the  reciprocal  duties  and  enjoyments  of  hospitality,  friendship,  or 
love.  Such  are  hearth,  roof,  fireside.  The  chief  emotions,  too,  of  which 
we  are  susceptible,  are  expressed  in  the  same  language,  as  love,  hope, 
fear,  sorrow,  shame ;  and,  what  is  of  more  consetiuence  to  the  orator  and 
the  poet,  as  well  as  in  common  life,  the  outward  signs  by  which  emotion 
is  indicated  are  almost  all  Anglo-Saxon ;  such  are  tear,  smile,  blush,  to 
laugh,  to  weep,  to  sigh,  to  groan.  Most  of  those  objects,  about  which  the 
practical  reason  of  man  is  employed  in  common  life,  receive  their  names 
from  the  Anglo-Saxon.  It  is  the  language,  for  the  most  part,  of  business ; 
of  the  counting-house,  the  shop,  the  market,  the  street,  the  farm ;  and, 
however  miserable  the  man  who  is  fond  of  philosophy  or  abstract  science 
might  be,  if  he  had  no  other  vocabulary  but  this,  we  must  recollect  that 
language  was  made  not  for  the  few,  but  the  many,  and  that  portion  of  it 
which  enables  the  bulk  of  a  nation  to  express  their  wants  and  transact 
their  affairs,  must  be  considered  of  at  least  as  much  importance  to  gen- 
eral happiness,  as  that  which  serves  the  purpose  of  philosophical  science. 
Nearly  all  our  national  proverbs,  in  which  it  is  truly  said,  so  much  of  the 
practical  wisdom  of  a  nation  resides,  and  which  constitute  the  manual 
and  vade  mecum  of  "  hobnailed "  philosophy,  are  almost  wholly  Anglo- 
Saxon.  A  very  large  proportion  (and  that  always  the  strongest)  of  the 
language  of  invective,  humor,  satire,  colloquial  pleasantry,  is  Anglo 
Saxon.  Almost  all  the  terms  and  phrases  by  which  we  most  energeti 
cally  express  anger,  contempt,  and  indignation,  are  of  Anglo-Saxon 
origin.*  The  Latin  contributes  most  largely  to  the  language  of  polite 
life"  as  well  as  to  that  of  polite  literature.  Again,  it  is  often  necessary  to 
convey  ideas,  which,  though  not  truly  and  properly  offensive  in  them 
selves,  would,  if  clothed  in  the  rough  Saxon,  appear  so  to  the  sensitive 
modesty  of  a  highly  refined  state  of  society ;  dressed  in  Latin,  these  very 
same  ideas  shall  seem  decent  enough.  There  is  a  large  number  of  Avords, 
which,  from  the  frequency  with  which  they  are  used,  and  from  their  being 
BO  constantly  in  the  mouths  of  the  vulgar,  would  not  be  endured  in  pol- 
ished society,  though  more  privileged  synonymes  of  Latin  origin,  or  some 
classical  circumlocution,  expressing  exactly  the  same  thing,  shall  pass 
unquestioned. 

There  may  be  nothing  dishonest,  nothing  really  vulgar  about  the  old 
Saxon  word,  yet  it  would  be  thought  as  uncouth  in  a  drawing-room,  as 
the  ploughman  to  whose  rude  use  it  is  abandoned,  t   Thus,  the  word 


*  One  of  the  most  distinguished  orators  and  writers  of  the  present  age  is 
remarkable  for  the  Saxon  force  and  ptirity  of  his  language.  He  a  jldom 
uses  an  Anglicized  Latin  word,  when  a  pure  English  expression  is  at  hand. 
This  will  account,  in  some  degree,  for  the  strength  of  his  language  and  the 
vehemence  of  his  style.  The  reader  scarcely  needs  to  be  informed,  that 
reference  is  here  made  to  the  late  Secretary  of 'State,  Hon.  Daniel  Webster. 

t  To  what  is  here  said  of  the  Saxon,  may  be  added  a  short  extract  from 
Sir  Walter  Scott's  "  Ivanhoe,"  in  a  dialogue  between  the  jester  and  the 
jwineherd.   (Vol.  I.  p.  25.   S.  H.  Parker's  edition.) 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


63 


"  stench^^  is  lavendered  over  into  tuipleasant  effluma,  or  an  ill  odor, 
"  sweat,"  diluted  into  four  times  the  number  of  syllables,  becomes  a  very 
inojfensive  thing  ia  the  s-hape  of  "  perspiration."*  To  "  squint "  is  soften- 
ed into  obliquity  of  vision ;  to  be  "  drunk "  is  vulgar ;  but,  if  a  man  bo 
simply  intoxicated  or  inebriated,  it  is  comparatively  venial.  Indeed,  we 
may  say  of  the  classical  names  of  vices,  what  Burke  more  questionably 
said  of  vices  themselves,  "  that  they  lose  half  their  deformity  by  losing 
all  their  grossness."  In  the  same  manner,  we  all  know  that  it  is  very  pos- 
sible for  a  medical  man  to  put  to  us  questions  under  the  seemly  disguise 
of  scientific  phraseology  and  polite  circumlocution,  which,  if  expressed  m 
the  bare  and  rude  vernacular,  would  almost  be  as  nauseous  as  his  draughts 
|iid  pills.  Lastly ;  there  are  many  thoughts  which  gain  immensely  by 
mere  novelty  and  variety  of  expression.  This  the  judicious  poet,  who 
knows  that  the  connexion  between  thoughts  and  words  is  as  intimate  as 
that  between  body  and  spirit,  well  understands.  There  are  thoughts  in 
themselves  trite  and  common-place,  when  expressed  in  the  hackneyed 
terms  of  common  life,  which,  if  adorned  by  some  graceful  or  felicitous 
novelty  of  expression,  shall  assume  an  unwonted  air  of  dignity  and  ele 
gance.  What  was  trivial,  becomes  striking;  and  what  was  plebeian, 
noble. 


*  See  Euphemism. 


XX. 

PERITHEASE,  PERIPHRASIS,  OR  CIRCUMXOCUTION,  EU« 
PHEMISM  AND  AJNTONOMASIA. 

Periphrase,  periphrasis,  and  circumlocution,  are  words  all 
meaning  the  same  thing,  and  are  equivalent  to  what  is  gener- 


"  How  call  you  these  grtinting  brutes  running  about  on  their  fore  legs  ?  " 
demanded  Wamba. 

"  Swine,  fool,  swine,''^  said  the  herd;  "  every  fool  knows  that." 

"  And  swme  is  good  Saxon,"  said  the  jester.    "But  how  call  you  the 
sow,  when  she  is  flayed  and  drawn  up  by  the  heels  like  a  traitor  ?  " 
Porh,''''  answered  the  swineherd. 

"I  am  very  glad  every  fool  knows  that,  too,"  said  Wamba;  "  and  porh^ 
I  think,  is  good  Norman  French ;  and  so  when  the  brute  lives,  and  is  in  the 
charge  of  a  Saxon  slave,  she  goes  by  her  Saxon  name ;  but  becomes  a  Nor- 
man and  is  called  pork,  when  she  is  carried  to  the  Castle-hall  to  feast 
among  the  nobles.  There  is  old  alderman  Ox,  continues  to  hold  his  Saxon 
epithet,  while  he  is  under  the  charge  of  serfs  and  bondmen  ;  but  becomes 
Beef,  when  he  arrives  before  the  worshipful  jaws  that  are  destined  to  con 
Bume  him.  Calf,  too,  becomes  Vnal,  in  the  like  manner;  he  is  Saxon 
wheii  he  recjuires  tendance,  and  takes  a  Norman  name,  when  he  becomes 
oiatter  of  enj  oyment. ' ' 


64 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


all  f  called  a  ^  roundahout  expression  ;^  wliicli  explaixition  is 
its-3lf  an  example  of  the  figure,  because  it  denotes  in  three 
words  what  periphrase,  periphrasis,  or  circumlocution  does  in 
one.  The  definitions  of  words,  as  they  appear  in  dictionaries, 
are  periphi-ases.  Such  circumlocutions  are  frequently  useful, 
especially  in  poetry ;  and  are  often  necessary  in  translations 
from  foreign  languages,  when  we  can  find  no  word  in  our  own, 
exactly  equivalent  to  that  which  we  have  to  translate. 

Periphrase*  is  frequently  useful  to  avoid  a  repetition  of  the  same  word- 
but  periphrases  of  every  kind  require  careful  management ;  because,  per- 
haps, more  than  any  other  figure  of  speech,  they  are  apt  to  run  into 
bombast.f 

Under  the  head  of  periphrases  may  be  iacluded  the  figures  Euphemism 
and  Antonomasia. 

Words,  or  phrases  that  call  up  disagreeable  ideas  are,  in  po- 
lite language,  softened  by  means  of  circumlocutions.  In  these 
changes,  as  well  as  in  most  others,  custom  is  the  guide.  It  is 
reckoned  more  decorous,  for  example,  to  the  memory  of  the 
departed,  to  say  that  "  he  perished  on  the  scaffold,"  than  that 
"  he  was  hanged."  Such  softened  expression  is  called  euphem- 
ism ;  a  Greek  word  signifying  a  hind  speech. 

Antonomasia  is  a  term  apphed  to  that  form  of  expression  in 
which  a  proper  name  is  put  for  a  common,  or  a  common  name 
.for  a  proper ;  or,  when  the  title,  ofiice,  dignity,  profession,  sci- 
ence, or  trade,  is  used  instead  of  the  true  name  of  a  person. 
Thus,  when  we  apply  to  Chi*ist  the  term,  "  the  Savior  of  the 
world,"  or  "  the  Redeemer  of  mankind  ; "  or  to  Washington^ 
the  term,  "  the  Father  of  his  country ; "  or  when  we  say  His 
Excellency,  instead  of  the  governor.  His  Honor,  instead  of 
the  judge ;  or.  His  Majesty,  instead  of  the  king,  the  expres- 
sion is  called  Antonomasia.  So,  also,  when  a  glutton  is  call- 
ed a  Heliogabaius  (from  the  Roman  emperor  distinguished 
for  that  vice,)  or  a  tyrant  is  called  a  Nero,  we  have  other  in- 
stances of  the  same  form  of  expression. 


*  Periphrase,  as  defined  by  "Webster,  is  "  The  use  of  more  words  than  are 
necessary  to  express  the  idea ;  as  a  figure  of  rhetoric,  it  is  employed  td 
avoid  a  common  or  trite  manner  of  expression." 

t  Bombast  is  a  kind  of  expression  by  which  a  serious  attempt  is  made  to 
raise  a  low  or  familiar  subject  above  its  rank,  thereby  never  failing  to  make 
It  ridiculous.  Bathos  is  the  reverse  of  bombast,  and  consists  in  degxading 
a  subject  by  too  low  expressions.  Both  of  these  modes  of  writing  equally 
excite  the  risible  faculties  of  the  reader. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


65 


Agam,  when  we  call  Geography,  "  that  science  which  de- 
scribes the  earth  and  its  inhabitants,"  or  Arithmetic  is  termed 
"  the  science  of  numbers,"  the  antonomasia  becomes  apparent. 
It  will  thus  be  seen,  that  this  form  of  expression  is  frequently 
nothing  more  than  an  instance  of  periphrasis,  or  circumlocution. 

This  form  of  expression  is  very  common  in  parliamentary  language 
and  in  deliberative  assemblies,  in  which,  in  speaking  of  individual  persons, 
they  are  not  called  by  their  proper  names,  but  by  their  oflice,  or  some 
other  designating  appellation.^  Thu^,  in  spealdng  of  Washington,  the 
orator  designates  him,  by  antonomasia,  as  "  the  sage  of  Mount  Vernon," 
or  of  Shakspeare,  as  "  the  bard  of  Avon,"  from  the  river  on  whose  bank 
he  resided. 

Amplification  is  the  expansion  of  a  subject,  by  enumerating 
circumstances  which  are  intended  by  an  orator  to  excite  more 
strongly  in  his  audience  the  feelings  of  approbation  or  of 
blame.  It  is  dwelling  upon  the  subject  longer  than  is  actu- 
ally necessary  for  its  enunciation ;  and  is  in  so  far  a  species 
of  circumlocution.f 


*It  is  contrary  to  the  rules  of  all  parliamentary  assemblies,  to  call  any 
member  by  his  proper  name.  Each  individual  is  called  by  the  name  of  the 
state,  town,  city,  county,  or  ward,  which  he  represents.  Tlaus,  we  say,  "  the 
gentleman  from  Massachusetts,"  "  the  member  from  Virginia,"  "  the  mem- 
ber from  Ward  10,"  &c. ;  or,  from  his  position,  "the  gentleman  on  my 
right,"  or,  "  the  gentleman  who  last  spoke,"  &c. 

The  antonomasia  is  a  figure  frequently  used  by  the  most  distinguished 
historical  writers,  and  especially  by  Mr.  Gibbon,  the  historian  of  the  "  De- 
cline and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire." 

t  The  following  passage  is  quoted  by  Mr.  Booth  from  Scriblerus,  "  the 
perusal  of  the  whole  of  which  admirable  satire,"  says  Mr.  Booth,  "  is  indis- 
pensable to  every  one  who  would  study  the  principles  of  English  Compo- 
sition :  " — 

"  We  may  define  amplification  to  be  making  the  most  of  a  thought ;  it  is 
the  spinning-wheel  of  the  Bathos,  which  draws  out  and  spreads  it  in  its 
finest  thread.  There  are  amplifiers  who  can  extend  half  a  dozen  thin 
thoughts  over  a  whole  folio  ;  but  for  which,  the  tale  of  many  a  vast  ro- 
mance, and  the  substance  of  many  a  fair  volume,  might  be  reduced  into 
the  size  of  a  primer. 

"  A  passage  in  the  104th  Psalm,  '  He  looks  on  the  earth  and  it  trembles, 
he  touches  the  hills  and  they  smoke,'  is  thus  amplified  by  the  same  author  • 
'  The  hills  forget  they  're  fixed,  and  in  their  fright 
Cast  off"  their  weight,  and  ease  themselves  for  flight ; 
The  woods  with  terror  winged  outfly  the  wind, 
And  leave  the  heavy  panting  hills  behind.'  " 
You  here  se.e  the  hills,  not  only  trembling,  but  shaking  off"  the  woods  from 
their  backs,  to  run  the  faster ;  after  this,  you  are  presented  with  a  foot-race 
of  mountains  and  woods,  where  the  woods  distance  the  mountains,  that, 
like  corpulent,  pursy  fellows,  come  pufling  and  panting  a  vast  way  behind 
them. 

6* 


C6 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Mxamples  of  Periphrasis. 

Grammar.         The  science  which  teaches  the  proper  vm 
of  language. 

"Woman.  The  gentle  sex ;  or,  the  female  sex. 

Arithmetic.  The  science  of  numbers. 
To  disappoint.  To  frustrate  one's  hopes. 
The  skies.  The  upper  deep. 

Zoology.  That  department  of  natural  science  which 

treats  of  the  habits  of  animals. 


Examples  of  Euphemism, 


Tasaes  worked  so  hard  that  he 
sweat  Yerj  profusely. 

The  room  smells  badly. 
Maiy  is  a  great  slut. 

He  is  a  very  dirty  fellow. 
You  lie. 


James  worked  so  hard  that  he 
perspired  very  freely;  or 
the  perspiration  stood  on 
him  in  drops. 

There  is  an  unpleasant  efflu- 
via in  the  room. 

Mary  is  inattentive  to  her  per- 
sonal appearance;  or,  is 
careless  in  her  personal 
habits. 

He  is  destitute  of  neatness. 
You  labor  under  a  mistake.* 


Examples  of  Antonomasia. 

The  Queen.  Her  Majesty. 

Homer.  The  author  of  the  Iliad  and 

Odyssey. 

Washington.  The  Sage  of  Mount  Vernon, 

Hesiod.  The  earhest  of  the  Poets. 

Lord  Wellington.  The  Hero  of  Waterloo. 


*  No  word  of  Holy  Vfrit  has  in  it  a  better  turn  of  worldly  wisdom  than 
that  from  the  Book  of  Proverbs:  —  *' A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath, 
but  grievous  words  stir  up  anger."  The  "soft  answer"  is,  in  fact,  a  eu- 
phemism. No  one  is  offended  who  is  told  that  "  he  labors  under  a  mistake," 
while,  perhaps,  no  accusation  would  give  greater  offence,  than  the  sani« 
idea,  expressed  as  above,  unsoftened  by  euphemism. 


AIDS  rO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


67 


Boston. 

New  York. 

Philar.slphia. 

New  Orleans. 

Cincinnati. 

Baltimore. 

London. 

The  King  of  France. 
Napoleon  Bonaparte. 
The  King  of  Spain. 
Washington,  (the  capital  of 

the  United  States.) 
St.  Luke. 
St.  John. 
Cowper. 

The  British  Court. 


The  Literary  Emporium. 

The  Commercial  Emporium. 

The  City  of  Brotherly  Love. 

The  Crescent  City. 

The  Queen  of  the  West. 

The  Monumental  City. 

The  Mart  of  the  World ;  or, 
the  British  Metropolis. 

His  most  Christian  Majesty. 

The  Hero  of  a  hundred  battles. 

His  most  Catholic  Majesty. 

The  City  of  magnificent  dis- 
tances. 

The  beloved  physician. 

The  disciple  that  Jesus  loved. 

The  author  of  «  The  Task." 

The  Court  of  St.  James. 


The  following  sentences  present  examples  of  Periphrasis,  * 
Euphemism  and  Antonomasia,  and  it  is  required  of  the  student 
to  designate  each. 

Solomon,  (the  wisest  of  men,)  says,  "  Better  is  a  dinner  of  herbs,  where 
love  is,  than  a  stalled  ox  and  hatred  therewith." 

David  (The  Author  of  the  Psalms)  was  one  of  the  sweetest  and  most 
pious  writers  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Moses  ( The  Jewish  Lawgiver)  was  educated  by  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh. 

Saul  (The  first  king  of  Israel)  was  a  man  of  uncommon  stature. 

^  Methuselah  (He  who  lived  to  the  greatest  age  recorded  of  man)  died  before 
his  father,  t 

Adam  Smith  (The  author  of  the  Wealth  of  Nations)  says  that  there  is 
in  man  a  natural  propensity  to  truck,  barter  and  exchange  one  thing  for 
another. 

It  is  pleasant  to  relieve  (he  the  instrument  of  relieving)  distress. 

Short  and  (The  transient  day  of)  sinful  indulgence  is  followed  by  long 
and  distressing  (a  dark  and  tempestuous  night  of)  sorrow. 

Christ  (He  tvho  spake  as  never  man  spoke)  says,  in  his  sermon  on  the 
mount,  "  Blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart,  for  they  shall  see  God." 


The  judicious  use  of  periphrasis  or  circiamlocution,  often  involves  an  ac- 
quamtance  with  figurative  language,  under  which  head  it  properly  belongs. 
It  IS  taken  from  that  connexion  in  order  to  be  applied  in  other'  exercises 
which  pr-cede  the  subject  of  figures. 

t  His  father  was  Enoch,  who  never  died,  but  was  translated. 


68 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOK. 


He  thouglit  the  man  a  scoundrel  (dishonest)  and  therefore  would  not 
pay  him  the  money  (would place  no  confidence  in  him.) 

He  behaved  like  a  boor  (in  an  improper  manner)  and  therefore  the  gen- 
teel (persons  of  refinement)  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  him. 

I  consider  him  an  impudent  puppv  (rude  in  his  manners)  and  shall 
therefore  separate  myself  from  his  companv. 

The  man  was  drunk  (intoxicated,  or  had  indulged  in  liquor)  when  he 
used  these  indecent  words  (that  improper  language)  and  although  I  was 
very  mad  (u:<is  displeased)  with  him.  I  did  not  scold  at  (reprove)  him. 

Major  Andre  was  hanged  (perished  on  the  scaffold)  althouo-h  he  ear- 
nestly requested  that  he  might  be  fired  at  (shot.)  ° 

That  man  eats  his  victuals  like  a  pig  fzs  unrefined  in  his  manners  at  the 
table)  and  guzzles  down  his  drink  like  a  fish  (and  is  too  fond  of  his  cup.) 

He  has  on  dkty  stockings  (His  hose  are  not  mat)  and  muddy  shoes  (his 
shoes  are  soiled.) 

A  truly  genteel  man  (A  man  of  refinement)  is  known  as  well  bv  his  talk 
(conversation)  as  by  his  clothes  (dress.)  He  never  uses  low  language  and 
vulgar  expressions  (indulges  in  loose  conversation.)  His  hands  and  fa^e  and 
his  whole  body  are  well  washed,  he  cleans  his  teeth,  combs  his  hair.  (His 
whole  person  is  kept  neai  and  cleanly.)  and  brushes  his  clothes  whenever  they 
are  dirty,  (his  dress  never  appears  to  he  soiled.)  and  he  alwavs  looks  well,  as 
if  he  were  going  to  a  partv,  (and  he  always  looks  prepared  far  the  drawing- 
room.) 

Of  the  oldest  of  the  English  Poets,  (Chaucer)  as  he  is  the  father  of 
English  poetry,  so  I  hold  him  in  the  same  decree  of  veneration  as  the 
Greeks  hold  Homer  (the  author  of  the  Iliad  and^Odyssey)  or  the  Romans, 
hold  Virgil  (the  author  of  the  .Eneid.)  He  is  a  perpetual  fountain  of 
good  sense  ;  learned  in  all  sciences :  and  therefore  he  speaks  properlv  on 
all  subjects.  As  he  knew  what  to  say,  so  also  he  knows  where  to  leave 
off:^a  continence  which  is  pracrised  by  few  writers,  and  scarcelv  bv  any 
of  the  ancients,  excepting  the  authors  of  the  Eiad,  the  Odvssev  and  the 
.^neid. 

The  author  of  the  Essay  on  the  Understanding  (Mr.  Locke)  has  ad- 
vanced the  opinion  that  moral  subjects  are  as  susceptible  of  demonstration 
as  mathematical. 

The  Bard  of  Avon  (Shakspeare)  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men 
that  the  world  ever  produced,  (that  ever  appeared  in  the  ranks  of  humanity.) 
It  may  truly  be  said  of  him  that  he  touched  nothing  which  he  did  not 
adorn :  and  that  he  has  sti-ewed  more  pearls  in  the  paths  of  literature  than 
any  other  poet  that  the  world  has  seen.  His  works  have  had  more  ad- 
mirers than  those  of  any  other  author  excepting  the  writers  of  the  holy  " 
Scriptures. 

The  science  which  treats  of  language.  (Grammar)  and  the  science  which 
describes  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants,  (  Geography)  are  branches  frequent- 
ly studied,  but  too  frequently  imperfectly  understood. 

The  author  of  the  Waverley  novels  ( Sir  Walter  Scott)  must  have  been 
a  man  of  remarkable  industry,  as  well  as  of  uncommon  talent. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


6^ 


XXI. 

TAUTOLOGY  AOT)  CATACHEESIS. 

Tautology  is  the  repetition  of  the  same  meaning  in  different 
words,  or  the  needless  repetition  of  the  same  words. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  The  nefarious  wickedness  of  his  conduct  was 
reprobated  and  condemned  by  all,"  the  tautology  consists  in  the  use  of 
nefarious  and  wickedness  together ;  which  is  the  same  as  to  say,  the  wicked 
wickedness ;  and  reprobated  and  condemned,  which  are  words  of  similar 
meaning.  So,  also,  in  the  sentence,  "  The  brilliance  of  the  sun  dazzles 
our  eyes,  and  ovei-powers  them  with  hght,"  the  same  idea  is  conveyed  by 
the  word  "  dazzles  "  and  the  expression,  "  overpowers  them  with  light  j " 
one  of  them,  therefore,  should  be  omitted. 

"Whenever  anything  is  represented  as  being  the  cause,  condition,  or 
consequence  of  itself,  it  may  also  be  considered  as  a  tautology,  as  in  the 
following  lines : 

"  The  dawn  is  overcast,  the  morning  lowers, 
And  heavily  in  clouds  b»ings  on  the  day." 

Addison. 

Tautologies  are  allowable  only  in  legf^.  instruments,  and  other  writings 
where  precision  is  of  more  importance  -nan  elegance ;  when,  therefore,  it 
consists  in  the  repetition  of  a  word,  it  may  be  corrected  by  the  use  of  a 
Bynonyme ;  but  when  it  consists  in  the  repetition  of  an  idea,  unless  such 
repetition  is  important  for  clearness  or  for  emphasis,  it  should  be  wholly 
suppressed. 

Example, 

They  returned  back  again  to  the  same  city  from  whence 
they  came  forth. 

In  this  sentence,  all  the  words  in  Italic  are  tautologies ;  for 
the  word  return  implies  to  turn  hack,  the  city  implies  the  same 
city,  and  from  and  forth  are  both  included  in  the  word  luhence. 
The  sentence,  read  without  the  words  in  Italic,  is  as  clear  and 
expressive  as  wojds  can  make  it.  "Words  which  do  not  add 
to  the  meaning  are  useless,  especially  in  prose. 

Exercises. 

^  He  led  a  blameless  and  an  irreproachable  life,  and  no  one  could  censure 
fcis  conduct. 

€rod  is  eternal,  and  his  existence  is  without  beginning  and  without  end 
Opium  produces  sleep,  because  it  possesses  a  soporific  quality. 
The  grass  grows  because  of  its  veget&tive  power. 


70 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


He  sat  on  the  Tcrdant  green,  in  the  umbrageous  shade  of  the  woody 
forest. 

How  many  there  are  by  whom  these  tidings  of  good  news  have  never 
been  heard. 

Virgil  in  his  ^neid  tells  a  story  very  similfu*  to  that  which  Homer  tells 
in  his  Odyssey.  But  the  one  relates  the  adventures  of  a  renowned  Tro- 
jan hero,  and  the  other  relates  the  adventures  of  a  renowned  Grecian 
hero. 

Our  sight  is  of  all  faculties  the  most  agreeable  when  we  indulge  it  in 
seeing  agreeable  objects ;  because  it  is  never  wearied  with  fatigue,  and  it 
requires  no  exertion  when  it  exerts  itself. 

He  succeeded  in  gaining  the  universal  love  of  all  men. 

A  father,  when  he  sees  his  chQd  going  to  the  silence  and  stillness  of 
the  tomb,  may  weep  and  lament  when  the  shadow  of  death  has  fully 
overshaded  him ;  and  as  he  hears  the  last  final  departing  knell  sounding 
in  his  ears,  may  say,  I  will  descend  and  go  down  to  the  grave  to  my  son 
mourning  in  sorrow.  But  he  turns  away  in  the  hurry  and  haste  of  busi- 
ness and  occupation ;  the  tear  is  wiped  ;  his  eyes  are  dried ;  and  though 
when  he  returns  and  comes  back  to  his  domestic  hearth  and  fireside  at 
home,  the  playful  and  sportive  laugh  comes  up  to  his  remembrance,  and 
is  recalled  to  his  recollection,  the  succeding  day  blunts  and  removes  the 
poignancy  of  his  grief,  and  it  finds  no  permanent  and  lasting  seat. 

There  is  a  sweetness  and  sacred  hohness  in  a  mother's  tears,  when  they 
are  dropt  and  fall  on  the  face  of  her  dying  and  expiring  babe,  which  no 
eye  can  see,  and  no  one  can  behold  with  a  heart  untouched  and  unaf- 
fected. 

It  is  clear  and  obvious  that  religious  worship  and  adoration  shoul*' 
be  regarded  with  pleasure  by  all  men. 


CATACHEESIS. 

There  is  another  fault  into  which  careless  writers  are  prone 
to  fall,  which  is  the  very  reverse  of  tautology ;  and  to  which 
the  term  Catachresis*  may  not  be  inappropriately  applied ; 
and  this  is  the  use  of  the  same  word  in  different  senses. 


*  The  literal  meaning  of  Catachresis  is  against  use,  and  it  is  applied  by 
rhetoricians  to  express  an  ahise,  or  false  use  of  a  word,  by  which  it  is  wrest- 
ed from  its  original  application,  and  made  to  express  something  which  is  at 
variance  with  its  etymology.  It  is  a  sort  of  blufldering  denomination, 
chiefly  caused  by  retaining  the  name  of  an  object,  after  the  quahties  from 
which  it  derived  that  name  are  changed.  The  thing  that  is  made,  for  ex- 
ample, is  often  designated  by  that  of  the  substance  from  which  it  is  fabri 
cated.  Thus  a  vessel  in  which  liquids  are  boiled  is  called  a  copper,  because, 
in  most  cases,  it  is  made  of  that  material,  and  this  figure  is  a  Metonomy, 
But  such  vessels  are  occasionally  made  of  other  metals,  still  retaining  the 
name  of  coppers,  and  it  is  this  misnomer  which  is  called  a  Catachresis 
From  this  explanation  it  will  appear  that  the  term  as  applied  above,  al 
though  not  rigidly  restricted  to  its  rhetorical  meaning,  is  not  wholly  inai> 
propriate. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


7J 


Example. 

Charity  expands  our  hearts  in  love  to  God  and  man ;  and 
it  is  by  the  virtue  of  charity  that  the  rich  are  blessed,  and  the 
poor  are  supplied. 

In  this  sentence  the  word  charity  is  improperly  applied  in 
two  different  senses,  namely,  for  the  highest  benevolence,  and 
for  simple  alms-giving. 

Exercises, 

Gregory  favored  the  undertaking  for  no  other  reason  than  this,  that  the 
manager  in  countenance  favored  (i.  c.  resembled)  his  friend. 

True  wit  is  nature  to  advantage  dressed ;  and  yet  some  works  have 
more  wit  than  does  them  good. 

Honor  teaches  us  to  respect  ourselves,  and  to  violate  no  right  nor  priv- 
ilege of  our  neighbor.  It  leads  us  to  support  the  feeble,  to  reheve  the 
distressed,  and  to  scorn  to  be  governed  by  degrading  and  injurious  pas- 
sions. And  yet  we  see  honor  is  the  motive  which  urges  the  destroyer  to 
take  the  life  of  his  friend. 

The  minister  proposed  a  plan  for  the  support  of  the  ministers  of  the 
church. 

The  professor  was  a  professor  of  religion. 

I  expect  that  you  have  no  reason  to  expect  the  arrival  of  your  friend.* 


XXII. 

PLEONASM,  VERBOSITY,  AND  REDUNDANCY. 

Pleonasm  consists  in  the  use  of  words  seemingly  superflu- 
ms,  in  order  to  express  a  thought  with  greater  energy:  as^ 
" I  saw  it  with  my  own  eyes"  Here  the  pleonasm  consists  in 
the  addition  of  the  expression,  "  with  my  own  eyes.' 

Pleonasms  are  usually  considered  as  faults,  especially  in  prose.  But» 


*  It  will  be  seen  from  what  has  been  said  in  relation  to  the  word  Cata 
ehresis  that  it  is  the  foundation  of  many  witticisms,  under  the  denomuiatioB 
of  paranomasia,  or pim.    [See  Faranomasia.] 


72 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COirPOSITIO^^ 


m  poetry,  they  may  be  pparingly  allowed  as  poetical  licenses*  The^ 
are  allowable,  also,  in  animated  discourse,  to  introduce  abruptly  an  em- 
t)hatic  word,  or  to  repeat  an  idea  to  impress  it  more  strongly :  as,  "  He  that 
Lath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear."    "I  know  thee  who  thou  art." 

Pleonasm  is  nearly  allied  to  tautology,  but  is  occasionally  a  less  glaring 
fault  in  a  sentence ;  and,  indeed,  it  may  be  considered  justifiable,  and 
even  sometimes  elegant,  when  we  wish  to  present  thoughts  with  particu- 
lar perspicuity  or  force  ;  but  an  unemphatic  repetition  of  the  same  idea  is 
one  of  the  worst  of  faults  in  writing. 

Pleonasm  impUes  merely  superfluity.  Although  the  words  do  not.  as 
in  tautology,  repeat  the  sense,  they  add  nothing  to  it. 

Pleonasm  differs,  also,  from  what  is  called  verbosity.  Verbosity,  it  is 
true,  implies  a  superabundance  of  words;  but,  in  a  pleonasm  there  are 
words  which  add  nothing  to  the  sense.  In  the  verbose  manner,  not  onlv 
single  words,  but  whole  clauses,  may  have  a  meaning,  and  yet  it  woulcl 
be  better  to  omit  them,  because  what  they  mean  is  unimportant. 

Another  difference  is,  that,  in  a  pleonasm,  a  complete  correction  may 
be  made,  by  simply  omitting  the  superfluous  words ;  but,  in  a  verbose 
sentence,  it  will  be  necessaiy  to  alter,  as  well  as  to  omit. 

It  is  a  good  rule,  always  to  look  over  what  has  been  written,  and  to 
strike  out  every  word  and  clause,  which  it  is  found  will  leave  the  sentence 
neither  less  clear,  nor  less  forcible,  than  it  was  before. 

There  are  many  sentences  which  would  not  bear  the  omission  of  a  single 
word,  without  affecting  the  clearness  and  force  of  the  expression,  and  which 
would  be  very  much  improved,  were  they  recast,  and  the  sense  expressed 
by  fewer  and  more  forcible  words.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  the  follo>ving 
sentence,  no  word  can  be  omitted  without  affecting  the  sense. 

"  A  severe  and  tyrannical  exercise  of  power  must  become  a  matter  of 
necessary  policy  with  kings,  when  their  subjects  are  imbued  with,  such 
principles  as  justify  and  authorize  rebellion." 

But  the  same  sense  may  be  much  better  expressed  in  fewer  words, 
thus : 

"  Bangs  will  be  tyrants  from  policy,  when  subjects  are  rebeb  from  prin 
ciple." 

Redundancy  is  another  term,  also  employed  to  signify 
^superfluity  in  the  words  and  members  of  a  sentence.  Pleo- 
nasm and  yerbosity  relate,  principally,  to  the  words  in  a  sen- 
tence, but  redundancy  relates  to  the  members  as  well  as  the 
words.  As  eyery  word  ought  to  present  a  7ieic  idea,  so  eyery 
member  ought  to  contain  a  new  thought.  The  following  sen- 
tence exemplifies  the  fault  of  redundancy.  "  The  yery  first 
discoyery  of  it  strikes  the  mind  with  inward  joy,  and  spreads 
delight  through  all  its  faculties."  In  this  example,  L'ttle  or 
nothing  is  added  by  the  second  member  of  the  sentence,  to 
what  was  expressed  in  the  first. 


*  See  the  article  od.  Poetical  License. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


73 


The^  following  sentences  present  examples  of  pleonasm^ 
verbosity,  and  redundancy,  which  may  be  corrected  by  the 
learner. 

JExercises* 

The  rain,  is  it  not  over  and  gone  ?   I  hear  no  wind,  only  the  voice  oi 
the  streams. 
My  banks  they  are  furnished  with  bees. 

_  It  is  impossible  for  us  to  behold  the  divine  works  with  coldness  or  in- 
difference, or  to  sun^ey  so  many  beauties,  without  a  secret  satisfaction 
and  complacency. 

Thy  rod  and  thy  staff  they  comfort  me. 

This  great  politician  desisted  from,  and  renounced  his  designs,  when 
he  found  them  impracticable. 

He  was  of  so  high  and  independent  a  spirit,  thait  he  abhorred  and  de 
tested  being  in  debt. 

Though  raised  to  an  exalted  station,  she  was  a  pattern  of  piety,  virtue, 
and  religion. 

The  human  body  may  be  divided  into  the  head,  trunk,  limbs,  and 
vitals. 

Kis  end  soon  approached ;  and  he  died  with  great  courage  and  fortitude. 
He  Avas  a  man  of  so  much  pride  and  vanity,  that  he  despised  the  senti- 
ments of  others. 

Poverty  induces  and  cherishes  dependence ;  and  dependence  strength- 
ens and  increases  corruption. 

This  man,  on  all  occasions,  treated  his  inferiors  with  great  haughtiness 
and  disdain. 

There  can  be  no  regularity  or  order  in  the  life  and  conduct  of  that'man 
who  does  not  give  and  allot  a  due  share  of  his  time  to  retirement  and 
rcfiectioa. 

Suc'j  equivocal  and  ambiguous  expressions,  mark  a  formed  intention 
to  deceive  and  abuse  us. 

Ihs  cheerful,  happy  temper,  remote  from  discontent,  keeps  up  a  kind 
of  d.aylight  in  his  mind,  excludes  every  gloomy  prospect,  and  fills  it  with 
1  steady  and  perpetual  sesenity. 

Being  content  with  deservinc.-  *\  triumph,  he  refused  the  honor  of  it 

In  the  Attic  commonwealtli,  it  waa  the  privilege  of  every  citizen  and 
l>ott  to  rail  aloud  in  public. 


xxin. 


VARIETr  OF  EXPRESSION. 

The  various  modes  of  transposition  and  inversion,  by  which 
the  same  idea  can  be  expressed  by  different  inflections  of, the 
words  have  already  been  presented.    In  this  esercise  'the 
7 


74 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


modes  are  suggested  by  which  the  idea  may  be  cliithed  in 
different  language,  still,  for  the  most  part  preserving  its 
identity.* 

Example  IsL 

The  young  should  be  diligent  and  industrious,  and  make  a 
proper  use  of  their  time. 

Diligence,  industry,  and  proper  improvement  of  time  are 
material  duties  of  the  young. 

Young  men,  be  industrious;  make  the  best  use  of  your 
time  ;  an  awful  responsibility  rests  upon  you. 

Young  persons  should  be  made  sensible,  that  it  is  their 
duty  to  be  diligent  and  industrious,  and  to  employ  their  time 
in  useful  pursuits. 

To  be  diligent  and  industrious,  and  to  employ  their  time  in 
profitable  occupations,  are  tilings  which  we  expect  from  young 
persons. 

In  the  morning  of  life,  when  the  phantoms  of  hope  are  flit- 
ting before  their  sight,  and  the  visions  of  fancy  are  decorating 
their  prospects,  the  young  should  not  suffer  themselves  to  be 
deluded  by  expectations  which  cannot  be  realized.  The 
golden  sands  should  not  be  wantonly  wasted  in  their  path, 
nor  should  the  precious  moments  of  life  be  suffered  to  take 
flight,  without  bearing  on  their  wings  some  token  of  their 
value. 

Duty  addresses  the  young  in  an  imperative  tone,  requiring 
them  to  apply  themselves  with  diligence  to  their  proper  occu- 
pations, and  forbidding  them  to  pay  one  moment  but  in  pur- 
chase of  its  worth.  "  And  what  is  its  worth  ?  —  Ask  death- 
beds ;  they  can  tell." 

Young  persons  cannot  be  commended  when  they  devote 
those  hours  to  indolence,  which  should  have  been  given  to 
industry ;  for  time  is  valuable,  and  should  be  properly  em- 
ployed. 


*  It  is  to  be  observed,  that,  in  the  practice  of  the  principle  involved  in 
this  exercise,  the  teacher  should  not  be  too  rigid  in  noticing  the  faults  of 
pleonasm,  verbosity,  or  redundancy.  The  object  of  the  exercife  is  to  give 
a  command  of  language,  and  it  will  be  well,  when  this  object  is  partially 
effected,  to  require  the  learner  to  take  his  own  sentences  and  prune  then) 
on  the  principles  explamed  in  the  preceding  exercises. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSTION. 


75 


The  young  should  be  diligent  and  industrious,  and  pro].erly 
improve  their  time.* 

It  is  not  only  when  duty  addresses  them  with  her  warning 
voice  that  the  young  should  practise  the  virtues  of  diligence 
and  industry ;  a  proper  improvement  of  their  time  is  at  all 
times  expected  from  them. 

Example  2d. 

[The  different  modes  of  expressing  the  same  idea  give 
rise  to  the  distinctions  of  style  which  have  been  mentioned  in 
the  Introduction.  The  subject  of  style  will  be  more  fully 
treated  in  the  subsequent  pages.  The  following  sentence  will 
exemphfy  to  the  student  the  effect  of  two  of  the  varieties  of 
style.] 

Sti/le  of  simple  Narration. 

Yesterday  morning,  as  I  was  walking  in  the  fields,  I  saw 
John  stab  James  through  the  heart  with  a  dagger. 

Style  of  passionate  exclamation,  in  which  the  prominent  idea 
is  brought  forward,  and  the  circumstances  are  cast  into  the 
shade. 

James  is  murdered !    I  saw  John  stab  him  to  the  heart. 
Exercises. 

JThe  student  must  be  careful  to  make  use  of  his  understanding  and  dxs 
cnmmation,  as  well  as  his  dictionary,  in  the  performance  of  these  exer  • 
cises.  J 

True  friendship  is  like  sound  health,  the  value  of  it  is  seldom  knowD 
until  it  is  lost. 

_  As  no  roads  are  so  rough  as  those  that  have  just  been  mended,  so  no 
smners  are  so  intolerant  as  those  that  have  just  turned  saints. 

When  certain  persons  abuse  us,  let  us  ask  ourselves  what  description 
of  characters  it  is  that  they  admire;  we  shall  often  find  this  a  very  con- 
solatory question. 


*  In  the  Introduction  to  this  book,  notice  was  taken  of  the  different 
Jorms  or  style,  of  composition.  In  this  model,  an  attempt  has  been  made 
to  imitate  several  of  the  diversities  of  style  there  mentioned ;  and  it  will 
be  usetul  to  the  student,  when  he  shall  have  become  acquainted  with  the 
diversities  of  style,  m  the  subsequent  pae^es  of  this  volume,  to  endeavor  to 
designate  them  respectively  by  their  peculiar  characteristics.  It  may  here 
De  remarked,  that  the  style  of  common  conversation,  called  the  colloquial 
style,  allows  the  introduction  of  terms  and  expressions,  which  are  not  used 
m  grave  writing.  ^  ' 


76 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMrOSITION. 


Contemporaries  appreciate  the  man  rather  than  the  merit;  but  pes 
terity  vnll  regard  the  merit  rather  than  the  man. 

All  beyond  enough  is  too  much;  all  beyond  nourishment  is  luxury 
all  beyond  decency  is  extravagance. 

Eorm  your  taste  on  the  classics,  and  your  principles  on  the  book  of  all 
truth. 

Let  the  first  fruits  of  your  intellect  be  laid  before  the  altar  of  Him  who 
breathed  into  your  nostrils  the  breath  of  life ;  and  with  that  breath,  your 
immortal  spirit. 

The  love  of  learning,  though  truly  commendable,  must  never  be  grati- 
fied beyond  a  certain  limit.  It  must  not  be  indulged  in  to  the  injury  of 
your  health,  nor  to  the  hindrance  of  your  virtue. 

What  will  the  fame  derived  from  the  most  profound  learning  avail  you, 
if  you  have  not  learned  to  be  pious  and  humble,  and  temperate  and 
charitable. 

There  is  nothing  more  extraordinary  in  this  country,  than  the  tran- 
sition of  the  seasons.  The  people  of  Moscow  have  no  spring.  Winter 
vanishes^  and  summer  is.  This  is  not  the  work  of  a  week,  or  of  a  day. 
but  of  one  instant ;  and  the  manner  of  it  exceeds  belief. 

On  eagles'  wings  immortal  scandals  fly, 
While  virtuous  actions  are  but  born  and  die. 


XXIV. 

TEAJSrSLATION,  OE  CONVERSION  OF  POETKY  INTO 
PROSE. 

Poetry  when  literally  translated  makes  in  general  but  in- 
sipid prose.  Prose  is  the  language  of  reason,  —  poetry  of 
feeling  or  passion.  Prose  is  characterized  by  fulness  and 
precision.  Poetry  deals  largely  in  elliptical  expressions, 
exclamations,  exaggerations,  apostrophes,  and  other  peculiari- 
ties not  usually  found  in  prose.  For  the  purpose,  also,  of 
accommodating  them  to  the  measure  of  a  verse,  the  poets  fre- 
quently alter  or  abbreviate  words,  and  use  expressions  which 
would  not  be  authorized  in  prose.  Such  abbreviations  and 
alterations,  together  with  other  changes  sometimes  made,  are 
called  poetic  licences,  because  they  are  principally  used  by 
poetical  writers. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  licences  used  by  poetical  writers .  - 
1.  Elision,  or  the  omission  of  parts  of  a  word.   When  the  elision  is 
from  the  beginning  of  a  word,  it  is  called  apJiceresis,  and  consists  in  cnt- 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


77 


tmg  off  the  initial  letter  or  syllable  of  a  word;  as,  Squire  for  esguire 
Against  for  against,  ^gan  for  began,  &c.  When  the  elision  is  from  the  bodj 
of  the  word,  it  is  called  syncope ;  as,  lisfning  for  listening,  thundering  foi 
thundering,  loved  for  loved,  &c.  When  the  elision  is  from  the  end  of  a  word, 
it  is  called  apocope,  and  consists  in  the  cutting  off  of  a  final  vowel  or  syl 
lable,  or  of  one  or  more  letters  ;  as,  gi^  me  for  give  me,  fro'  for  from,  o'  foi 
of  tK  evening  for  the  evening,  PhilomeV  for  Philomela. 

2.  Syn^resis,  or  the  contraction  of  two  syllables  into  one,  by  rapidlj 
pronouncing  in  one  syllable  two  or  more  vowels  which  properly  belong  to 
separate  syllables ;  as  ae  in  the  word  Israel. 

3.  Apostrophe,  or  the  contraction  of  two  words  into  one ;  as,  H  is  foi 
it  is,  cant  for  cannot,  thou  'ri  for  thou  art. 

4.  Diuresis,  or  the  division  of  one  syllable  into  two  as,  pu-is-sant  foi 
puissant. 

5.  Paragoge  or  the  addition  of  an  expletive  letter ;  withouten  for  with- 
out, crouchen  for  crouch. 

6.  Prosthesis,  or  the  prefixing  of  an  expletive  letter  or  syllable  to  a 
word ;  as,  appertinent  for  pertinent,  beloved  for  loved. 

7.  Enallage,  or  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another ;  as  in  the 
following  lines,  in  which  an  adjective  is  used  for  an  adverb ;  as, 

"  Blue  through  the  dusk  the  smoking  currents  shine." 
*'  The  fearful  hare  limps  awkward." 

8.  Htperbaton,  or  the  inversion  or  transposition  of  words,  placing 
that  first  which  should  be  last ;  as, 

"  And  though,  sometimes,  each  dreary  pause  between.^^ 
"  Him  answered  then  his  loving  mate  and  true." 

9.  Pleokasm,  or  the  use  of  a  greater  number  of  words  than  are  neces 
fary  to  express  the  meaning ;  as, 

"  My  banks  they  are  furnished  with  bees." 

10.  Tmesis,  or  the  separation  of  the  parts  of  a  compound  word ;  as, 
On  which  side  soever,  for,  On  whichsoever  side. 

11.  Ellipsis,  or  the  omission  of  some  parts  not  absolutely  essential  fro 
express  the  meaning,  but  necessary  to  complete  the  grammatical  con- 
struction. 

The  poets  have  likewise  other  peculiarities  which  are  embraced  under 
the  general  name  of  poetic  diction.  In  order  to  accommodate  their  lan- 
guage to  the  rules  of  melody,  and  that  they  may  be  relieved,  in  some 
measure,  from  the  restraints  which  verse  imposes  on  them,  they  are  in- 
dulged in  the  following  usages,  seldom  allowable  in  prose. 

1.  They  abbreviate  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  adverbs,  &c. ;  as,  viam  for 
morning,  amaze  for  amazement,  fount  for  fountain,  dread  for  dreadjul,  lone  for 
lonely,  lure  for  allure,  list  for  listen,  ope  for  open,  oft  for  often,  haply  for  hap 
pily,  &c.,  and  use  obsolete  words  *  and  obsolete  meanings. 


*  Obsolete  words  are  words  which,  although  formerly  current,  are  not 
now  in  common  use. 

7* 


78 


AIDS   rO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


2.  They  make  use  of  ellipnes  more  frequently  than  prose  writers 
omitting  the  article,  the  relative  pronoun,  and  sometimes  even  its  ante- 
cedent; using  the  auxiliaries  without  the  principal  verb  to  which  they  be- 
long ;  and  on  tlie  contrary,  they  also  sometimes  make  use  of  repetitions 
which  are  seldom  observed  in  prose. 

3.  They  use  the  infinitive  mood  for  a  noun ;  use  adjectives  for  adverbs, 
and  sometimes  even  for  nouns  ;  and  nouns  for  adjectives  5  ascribe  quali- 
ties to  things,  to  which  they  do  not  literally  belong ;  form  new  compound 
epithets  ;  connect  the  word  self  with  nouns,  as  well  as  pronouns ;  some- 
times lengthen  a  word  by  an  additional  letter  or  syllable,  and  give  to  the 
imperative  mood  both  the  first  and  third  persons. 

4.  They  arbitrarly  employ  or  omit  the  prefixes ;  use  active  for  neuter 
and  neuter  for  active  verbs ;  employ  participles  and  interjections  more 
frequently  than  prose  writers  ;  connect  words  that  are  not  in  all  respects 
similar ;  and  use  conjunctions  in  pairs  contrary  to  grammatical  rule. 

5.  They  alter  the  regular  arrangement  of  the  words  of  a  sentence, 
placing  before  the  verb  words  which  usually  come  after  it,  and  after  the 
verb  those  that  usually  come  before  it,  putting  adjectives  after  their  nouns, 
the  auxiliary  after  the  principal  verb ;  the  preposition  after  the  objective 
case  which  it  governs ;  the  relative  before  .the  antecedent ;  the  infinitive 
mood  before  the  word  which  governs  it ;  and  they  also  use  one  mood  of 
the  verb  for  another,  employ  forms  of  expression  similar  to  those  of  other 
languages,  and  different  from  those  which  belong  to  the  English  language 

But  one  of  the  most  objectionable  features  of  poetic  diction  is  the  in 
terjection  of  numerous  details,  between  those  parts  of  a  sentence  which 
are  closely  combined  by  the  rules  of  Syntax.  Thus,  in  the  following  ex- 
tract from  one  of  the  most  celebrated  poets  of  the  language,  generally 
characterized  by  the  simplicity  of  his  diction,  the  objective  case  is  placed 
before  the  verb  which  governs  it,  while  a  number  of  circumstances  arc 
introduced  between  them. 

But  me,  not  destined  such  delights  to  share, 
My  prime  of  life  in  wandering  spent  and  care, 
Impelled,  with  steps  unceasing,  to  pursue 
Some  fleeting  good,  that  mocks  me  with  the  view, 
That,  like  the  circle  bounding  earth  and  skies. 
Allures  from  far,  yet,  as  I  follov/,  flies ; 
"My  fortune  leads  to  traverse  realms  alone, 
And  find  no  spot  of  all  the  world  my  own. 

Exercises. 

[m  the  folloiving  extracts,  the  student  may  point  out  the  peculiarities  of 
POETIC  DICTION,  which  have  now  been  emimerated.  The  words  in  Italve 
vnll  assist  Idm  in  recognizing  tJiem.} 

The  cottage  curs  at  early  pilgrim  bark. 

The  pipe  of  early  shepherd. 

Affliction's  self  deplores  thy  youthful  doom. 

Wliat  dreadful  pleasure,  there  to  stand  subltme, 

Like  shipwrecked  mariner  on  desert  coast ! 

Ah !  see !  the  unsightly  slime  and  sluggish  pool, 

Have  all  tlie  solitary  val&  embroiimed 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  79 

Hereditary  bondmen !    Know  ye  not 

Who  would  be  free  themselves  must  strike  the  blowl 

"Nojire  the  kitchen's  cheerless  grate  displayed. 

Efflux  divine!  nature's  resplendent  robe. 

And  thou,  O  sun  ! 
Soul  of  surrounding  worlds !  in  whom  best  seen, 
Shines  out  thy  Maker ;  may  I  sing  of  thee ! 

Earth's  meanest  son,  all  trembling,  prostrate  falls, 
And  on  the  boundless  of  thy  goodness  calls. 

In  world-rejoicing  state  it  moves  sublime. 

Oft  in  the  stilly  night. 

Eor  is  there  aught  in  sleep  can  charm  the  wise  ? 

And  Peace,  O  Virtue !  Peace  is  all  thy  own. 

JBe  it  dapple's  bray, 

Or  be  it  not,  or  be  it  whose  it  may. 

"Wealth  heaped  on  wealth,  nor  truth  nor  safety  buys. 

And  sculpture  that  can  keep  thee  from  to  die. 

The  Muses  fair,  these  peaceful  shades  among, 
With  skilful  fingers  sweep  the  trembling  strings. 

Behoves  no  more, 
But  sidelong  to  the  gently  waving  wind, 
To  lay  the  weU-tuned  instrument  reclined. 

Had  unambitious  mortals  minded  nought, 
But  in  loose  joy  their  time  to  wear  away, 
Rude  natm-e's  state  had  been  *  our  state  to-day- 

In  the  following  exercises  the  learner  is  expected  to  write 
tlie  ideas  conveyed  in  the  poetical  extracts,  in  prose,  varying 
the  words  and  expressions,  as  well  as  the  arrangement  of 


*  This  form  of  expression,  where  one  mood  of  the  verb  is  used  for  another, 
18  sometimes  imitated  by  prose  writers.  Thus,  "  Sixty  summers  had  passed 
over  his  head  without  imparting  one  ray  of  warmth  to  his  heart;  without 
exciting  one  tender  feeling  for  the  sex,  deprived  of  whose  cheering  presence^ 
the  paradise  of  the  world  were  a  wilderness  of  weeds." — New  MoritJdy 
Magazine.  In  this  extract,  the  imperfect  of  the  subjunctive  is  used  without 
its  attendant  conjunction  for  the  pluperfect  of  the  potential,  Cowper  has 
a  similar  expression  in  his  fable  entitled  "  The  Needless  Alarm,"  where  he 
uses  th 2  pluperfect  of  the  indicative  for  the  pluperfect  of  the  potential; 
thus, 

"  Awhile  they  mused  ;  surveying  every  face, 
Thou  kadst  supposed  them  of  superior  race." 


80 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOIT. 


them,  so  as  to  make  clear  and  distinct  sentences,  *  as  in  the 
following 

JExampie. 

Reason's  whole  pleasure,  all  the  joy  of  sense. 

Lie  in  three  words,  —  health,  peace  and  competence. 

Same  idea  expressed  in  prose. 

Health,  peace,  and  competence  comprise  all  the  pleasures 
which  this  world  can  afford. 

Example  2d. 
The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 

Same  line  transposed  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
The  ploughman  plods  his  weary  way  homeward. 
Homeward  the  ploughman  plods  his  weary  way. 
His  weary  way  homeward  the  ploughman  plod:?. 
Plods  the  ploughman  homeward  his  weary  way. 
His  weary  way  the  j)loughman  plods  homeward. 
Homeward  plods  the  ploughman  his  weary  way. 
The  ploughman  his  weary  way  homeward  plods. 
Plods  homeward  the  ploughman  his  weary  way. 
Homeward  plods  the  ploughman  his  weary  way. 
His  weary  way  the  ploughman  homeward  plods,  &c. 

The  example  shows  that  it  is  not  always  necessary  to 
change  the  language,  in  order  to  convert  poetry  into  prose. 
Of  the  ten  modes  in  which  the  above  recited  line  has  been 
transposed,  it  will  be  noticed  that  several  of  them  are  entirely 
prosaic. 

It  may  here  be  remarked  that  in  the  conversion  of  poetry  into 

*  Sir  Walter  Scott,  in  a  letter  to  his  son,  ( See  Lochharfs  Life^  Vol.  V.,  p. 
54,)  has  the  following  language  :  "  You  should  exercise  yourself  frequently 
in  trying  to  make  ti'anslations  of  the  passages  which  mos't  strike  yon,  trying 
to  invest  the  sense  of  Tacitus  in  as  good  English  as  you  can.  This  will  an 
swer  the  double  purpose  of  making  yourself  familiar  with  the  Latin  author, 
and  giving  you  the  command  of  your  own  language,  which  no  person  will 
ever  have,  %vho  does  not  study  E)iglish  Composition  in  earhj  life.''''  Tho 
conversion  of  verse  into  prose  it  is  conceived  will,  at  least  in  a  good  degi-ee, 
subserve  the  same  useful  purpose  of  giving  command  of  language ;  and  for 
this  reason  the  exercises  in  this  lesson,  or  similar  ones,  cannot  be  too 
strongly  recommended,  especially  to  those  whose  minds  have  not  bean 
disciplined  by  an  attention  to  the  classics. 


AIDS  10  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


81 


prose,  the  animation  of  the  style  is  often  endangered.  Poetry 
admits  more  ornament  than  prose,  and  especially  a  more  lib- 
eral use  of  that  figure  (Prosopopoeia  or  Personification)  by 
which  Hfe  and  action  are  attributed  to  inanimate  objects. 
The  exercises,  therefore,  of  the  pupil,  in  converting  poetry  into 
prose,  will  be  deemed  useful  only  as  tending  to  give  clear  ideaa 
and  command  of  language.  * 

^  The  learner  is  presumed  now  to  be  prepared  to  transpose 
simple  tales  and  stories  from  verse  into  prose,  with  some 
additions  of  his  own.  Such  exercises  will  be  found  of  much 
use,  not  only  in  acquiring  command  of  language,  but  also  aa 
an  exercise  of  the  imagination.  In  performing  these  exer- 
cises, the  greatest  latitude  may  be  allowed,  and  the  learner 
may  be  permitted  not  only  to  alter  the  language,  but  to  sub- 
stitute his  own  ideas,  and  to  vary  the  circumstances,  so  as  to 
make  the  exercise  as  nearly  an  original  one  as  he  can. 

Example. 

The  following  short  tale,  or  story  in  verse,  is  presented  to  be  converted 
into  a  tale  in  pi-ose. 

GINEVRA. 

If  ever  you  should  come  to  Modena, 
("Where,  among  other  relics,  you  may  see 
Tassoni's  bucket,  —  but 't  is  not  the  true  one,) 
Stop  at  a  palace  near  the  Reggio  gate, 
Dwelt  in  of  old  by  one  of  the  Donati. 
Its  noble  gardens,  terrace  above  terrace. 
And  rich  in  fountains,  statues,  cypresses, 
Will  long  detain  you,  —  but,  before  you  go. 
Enter  the  house,  —  forget  it  not,  I  pray  you,  — 
And  look  awhile  upon  a  picture  there. 

'T  is  of  a  lady  in  her  earliest  youth. 
The  last  of  that  illustrious  family ; 
Done  by  Zampieri,  —  but  by  whom  I  care  not. 
He  who  observes  it,  ere  he  passes  on. 
Gazes  his  fill,  and  comes  and  comes  again, 
That  he  may  call  it  up  when  far  away. 

She  sits,  inclining  forward  as  to  spealv, 
Her  lips  half  open,  and  her  finger  up, 
As  though  she  said  "Beware  ! "  her  vest  of  gold 
'Broidered  with  flowers,  and  clasped  from  head  to  foot, 
An  emerald  stone  in  every  golden  clasp ; 

♦  Any  volume  of  poetical  extracts  will  furnish  additional  exercises  for 
the  student.  It  is  therefore  deemed  inexpedient  to  present  in  this  volume 
:-n  additional  number  of  them. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


And  on  lier  brow,  fairer  than  alabasier, 
A  coronet  of  pearls. 

But  then  her  face, 
So  lovely,  yet  so  arch,  so  full  of  mirth, 
The  overflowings  of  an  innocent  heart, — 
It  haunts  me  still,  though  many  a  year  has  fled, 
Like  some  wild  melody  ! 

Alone  it  hangs 
Over  a  mouldering  heirloom,  its  companion, 
An  oaken  chest,  half  eaten  by  the  worms. 
But  richly  carved  by  Antony  of  Trent 
With  scripture-stories  from  the  life  of  Christ ; 
A  chest  that  came  from  Venice,  and  had  held 
The  ducal  robes  of  some  old  ancestor;  — 
That  by  the  way,  —  it  may  be  true  or  false,  — 
But  don't  forget  the  picture  ;  and  you  will  not 
When  you  have  heard  the  tale  they  old  me  there. 
She  was  an  only  child,  —  her  name  Ginevra, 
The  joy,  the  pride  of  an  indulgent  father ; 
And  in  her  fifteenth  year  became  a  bride. 
Marrying  an  only  son,  Francesco  Doria, 
Her  playmate  from  her  birth,  and  her  first  love. 
Just  as  she  looks  there  in  her  bridal  dress. 
She  was  all  gentleness,  aU  gaiety. 
Her  pranks  the  favorite  themt  of  every  tongue. 
But  now  the  day  was  come,  the  day,  the  hour ; 
Now,  frowning,  smiling,  for  the  hundredth  time, 
The  nurse,  that  ancient  lady,  preached  decorum ; 
And,  in  the  lustre  of  her  youth,  she  gave 
Her  hand,  with  her  heart  in  it,  to  Francesco. 
Great  was  the  joy  ;  but  at  the  nuptial  feast. 
When  all  sate  dowTi,  the  bride  herself  was  wanting. 
Nor  was  she  to  be  found  !    Her  father  cried, 
"  'T  is  but  to  make  a  trial  of  our  love  !  " 
And  filled  his  glass  to  all ;  but  his  hand  shook, 
And  soon  from  guest  to  guest  tlie  panic  spi'ead. 
'T  was  but  that  instant  she  had  left  Francesco, 
Laughing,  and  looking  back  and  flying  stiU, 
Her  ivory  tooth  imprinted  on  his  finger, 
But  now,  alas,  she  was  not  to  be  found ; 
Nor  from  thatrhour  could  any  thing  be  guessed, 
But  that  she  was  not ! 

Weary  of  his  life, 
Francesco  flew  to  Venice,  and  embarking, 
Flung  it  away  in  battle  with  the  Turk. 
Donati  hved,  —  and  long  might  you  have  seen 
An  old  man  wandering  as  in  quest  of  something, 
Something  he  could  not  find,  —  he  knew  not  what. 
When  he  was  gone,  the  house  remained  awhile 
Silent  and  tenantless,  — then  went  to  strangers. 

Full  fifty  years  were  past,  and  all  forgotten. 
When,  on  an  idle  day,  a  day  of  search 
'Mid  the  old  lumber  in  the  gallery. 
That  mouldering  chest  was  noticed  ;  and 't  was  said 
By  one  as  young,  as  thoughtless  as  Ginevra, 
"  'Why  not  remove  it  from  its  lurking-place  ?  " 
'T  was  done  as  soon  as  said ;  but  on  the  way 
It  burst,  it  fell ;  and  lo  !  a  skeleton 
With  here  and  there  a  pearl,  an  emerald-stone, 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


83 


A  g:)lclen  clasp,  clasping  a  shred  of  gold. 
All  3lse  had  perished,  —  save  a  wedding  ring, 
And  a  small  seal,  her  mother's  legacy, 
Engi-aven  with  a  name,  the  name  of  both  — 
"  Ginevra  "  

There  then  had  she  found  a  grave  ! 
Within  that  chest  had  she  concealed  herself, 
Fluttering  Avith  joy,  the. happiest  of  the  happy; 
When  a  sprmg-lock,  that  lay  in  ambush  there, 
Fastened  her  down  for  ever ! 


Conversion  of  the  preceding  Story  into  Prose. 

THE  LEGEND  OF  MODENA.* 

In  an  elegant  apartment  of  a  palace  overlooking  the  Eeggio  gate  in 
Modena,  Avliich,  about  fifty  years  before,  belonged  to  the  noble  family  of 
Donati,  but  which  now  was  occupied  by  a  very  distant  branch  of  that 
illustrious  race,  sat  the  loveliest  of  its  descendants  —  the  beautiful  Bea- 
trice, the  flower  of  Modena.  Upon  the  marble  table  and  embroidered 
ottomans  before  her,  lay  a  variety  of  rich  costumes,  which  her  favorite 
attendant,  Laura,  was  arranging  where  their  rich  folds  fell  most  grace- 
fully, and  their  bright  tints  mocked  the  rainbows  hues  of  colored  light ; 
for  the  fair  Beatrice  was  selecting  a  becoming  attire  for  a  masqiierade  ball, 
v^hich  was  to  be  given  during  the  gay  season  of  the  approaching  Carni- 
val. But  a  shadow  of  discontent  rested  on  her  brow,  as  she  surveyed 
the  splendid  dresses  —  they  were  too  common-place  —  and  she  turned 
from  them  vnth  disdain.  Suddenly  her  eye  rested  upon  an  antique  pic- 
ture, hanging  on  the  tapestried  wall,  which  represented  a  young  and 
beautiful  figure  in  the  attitude  of 

"  Inclining  forward,  as  to  speak, 
Her  lips  half  open  and  her  finger  up, 
As  though  she  said  '  Beware  !  '  her  vest  of  gold 
Broidered  with  flowers  and  elapsed  from  head  to  foot,  ^ 
An  emerald  stone  in  every  golden  clasp, 
And  on  her  brow  —  a  coronet  of  pearls. ' ' 

Pushing  a.side  the  costly  silks  and  velvets,  she  ran  to  look  at  the  pic- 
ture more  closely.  The  lady's  dress  was  perfect,  she  thought ;  it  just 
suited  her  capricious  taste,  and  one  lilce  it  she  determined  to  have  and 
wear,  at  the  approaching  festival.  In  vain  Laura  expostulated,  and  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  such  an  antiquated  costume  was  brought  to  her 
mind,  and  finally,  the  legend  connected  with  the  portrait  was  begun. 
But  the  wilful  Beatrice  would  not  listen,  although  a  destiny,  sad  as  that 
of  the  ill-fated  lady  of  the  portrait  was  predicted,  if  she  persevered  in  her 
whim.  Regardless  of  remonstrance,  Beatrice  proceeded  to  search  among 
the  finery  of  her  ancestors  for  something  to  correspond  with  the  dress 
which  she  determined  to  have,  spite  of  all  their  old  legends,  which  she 


*  This  "  Legend  "  was  written  by  a  young  lady  of  about  thirteen  years 
of  age,  and  presented  as  an  exercise  at' the  public  school  in  this  city,  under 
the  charge  of  the  author. 


84 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


did  not  believe.  But  she  searched  in  vain,  and  she  was  returning  through 
♦  he  gallery  almost  in  despair,  when  her  attention  was  attracted  by  an  old 

"  Oaken  chest  half  eaten  by  the  Avorms, 
And  richly  carved," 

which  she  thought  might  contain  something  suitable.  Impatiently  she 
waited,  while  her  attendants  lifted  the  mouldering  cover,  and  then  bent 
eagerly  forward  to  look  at  its  contents — she  shrieked  and  fell  into  th* 
arms  of  Laura,  a  skeleton  met  her  eye, 

"  With  here  and  thei-e  a  pearl,  an  emerald  stone, 
A  golden  clasp,  clasping  a  shred  of  gold." 

The  legend  of  the  unfortunate  lady  of  the  portrait  was  indeed  true  — 
these  were  her  remains.  Beatrice  was  carried  to  her  room,  and  a  month 
passed  before  she  recovered  from  a  fever  occasioned  by  the  fright  and 
excitement  she  experienced ;  and  never  again  did  she  mingle  m  the  dis 
sipated  circle  of  her  native  city.  These  scenes  had  lost  their  charms  — 
for  the  skeleton  and  its  history  continually  presented  themselves  to  her 
mind,  reminding  her,  that  "  in  the  midst  of  life  we  are  in  death,"  and 
warning  her  to  prepare  for  that  change  which  must  occur  in  the  course 
of  our  existence.  After  a  while,  Beatrice  lost  these  gloomy  sensations, 
and  became  cheerful  and  happy  in  the  performance  of  diity,  and  partici- 
pated in  those  innocent  amusements  of  life,  which  she  enjoyed  far  better 
than  those  absorbing  pleasures,  which  she  used  to  admire.  The  old  chest 
and  portrait  were  placed  carefully  together,  and  Beatrice  ever  after  wore 
tlie  wedding  ring  and  tlie  seal  inscribed  with  the  name,  "  Ginevra,"  which 
had  been  found  among  the  other  relics  of  the  chest.  She  also  wrote,  for 
the  perusal  of  her  friends,  the  following  story  connected  with  the  picture 
and  its  mouldering  companion. 


GINEVRA. 

' '  And  she  indeed  was  beautiful, 
A  creature  to  behold  with  trembling  'midst  our  joy, 
Lest  ought  unseen  should  waft  the  vision  from  us, 
Leaving  earth  too  dim  Avithout  its  brightness." 

"  The  deep  gold  of  eventide  burned  in  the  Italian  sky,"  and  the  wind, 
passing  through  the  orange  groves  and  over  the  terraces  which  surround 
cd  the  palace  of  the  Donati,  mingled  its  soft,  sweet  sighs  with  the  mur 
muring  of  the  fountains,  which  sparkled  in  the  moonbeams,  occasionally 
sending  a  shower  of  spray  over  the  waving  foliage  that  shadowed  them 
At  a  window,  overlooldng  this  moon-Kt  scene,  stood  Ginevra,  the  only 
child  of  Donati,  "  the  joy,  the  pride  of  an  indulgent  father."  Indeed,  hei 
gentleness  and  sportiveness  made  her  loved  by  all,  and 

"  Her pranlcs,  the  favorite  theme  of  every  tongue." 

She  had  seen  but  fifteen  summers,  and  these  had  glided  away  like  a 
fairy  dream,  —  and  then 

"  Her  face  so  lovely,  yet  so  arch,  so  full  of  mirth, 
Tfie  overflowings  of  an  innocent  heart." 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


85 


And  tliere  she  stood,  looking  at  thpe  old  familiar  scenes,  till  a  teir  glit- 
tered in  licr  dark  eye,  and  a  shade  of  sadness  rested  on  her  fair  brow, 
like  a  cloud  shadowing  her  "  sunny  skies  " ;  —  for,  on  the  morrow,  she 
was  to  part  from  her  childhood's  home,  she  was  "  to  give  her  hand,^  with 
licr  heart  in  it,"  to  Francesco  Doria,  a  brave  and  handsome  son  of  that 
noble  family,  whose  name  often  occurs  in  the  annals  of  Italy.  Long  did 
Ginevi-a  linger  at  the  window.  "My  only  one."  The  voice  was  her 
lather's,  who,  accompanied  by  Francesco,  came  to  seek  her  5  and  there 
they  remained,  looking  out  on  that  lovely  scene ;  and  many  were  the 
joyous  anticipations,  the  bright  hopes,  the  dreams  of  happiness  which 
mingled  in  their  conversation,  while  Francesco  plucked  the  white  flowere 
from  a  vine  which  hung  across  the  casement,  and  wreathed  them  in 
Oinevra's  long  dark  curls.  But  a  neighboring  convent  bell  warned  them 
to  seek  repose,  and  reluctantly  they  parted  to  dream  of  the  morrow, 
\vhich  they  fondly  thought  would  bring  with  it  the  realization  of  their 
bright  hopes. 

"  The  morn  is  up  again,  the  dewy  morn,"  and  sunlight  and  dcAvdrops 
were  weaving  bright  rainbow  webs  over  shrab  and  flower,  and  the  fresh 
morning  breeze  blew  the  vines  across  the  marble  pillars  of  the  colonnade, 
which  echoed  with  the  merry  voices,  —  the  gay  laugh,  and  the  light  step 
of  the  proud  and  beautiful  assemblage,  collected  to  grace  the  wedding  of 
Donati's  lovely- daughter.  And  lovely,  indeed,  did  she  appear  among 
Italy's  fau-est  children.  Her  dress  of  rich  green  velvet,  clasped  with 
emeralds,  set  in  gold,  the  pearls  shining  among  her  dark  curls,  added  to 
her  loveliness,  and  made  her  appear  the  star  of  that  bright  company. 
Proudly  and  fondly  her  father  and  husband  watched  her  graceful  form, 
as  she  glided  among  the  gay  throng,  receiving  their  congratulations  as 
the  bride  of  Francesco  Doria.  Nothing  seemed  wanting  to  complete 
their  happiness.  IVIirth  and  festivity,  the  song  and  the  dance,  all  lent 
their  attractions  and  added  to  their  felicity.  Ah !  did  not  that  happy 
father  and  fond  husband  know  that  such  happiness  is  not  for  earth 

"  Fear  3'e  the  festal  hour ; 
Ay,  tremble  when  the  cup  of  joy  overflows ! 
Tame  down  the  swelling  heart !   The  bridal  rose 
And  the  rich  myrtle's  tiower 
Have  veiled  thee,  Death  1  ' ' 

Gaily  the  hours  passed  by  5  Genevra  was  all  gaiety,  half  wild  with  ex- 
citement. As  she  passed  Francesco,  she  whispered  her  intention  of  hid- 
ino-,  and  challenged  him  and  her  gay  associates  to  find  her.  Soon  were 
they  all  in  search  of  the  fair  bride,  and  merrily  they  proceeded  through 
the" lofty  halls,  the  dark  closets,  and  secret  apartments  of  that  spacious 
palace,  which  resounded  with  merry  voices  and  laughter.  Long  they 
looked,  but  vainly ;  and,  as  the  shades  of  evening  stole  over  the  scene, 
wearied  and  alarmed,  nearly  all  the  now  dismayed  guests  retired  to 
their  homes,  for  Genevra  was  nowhere  to  be  found.  Donati  and  Fran- 
cesco, half  frantic,  continued  the  search,  which  grew  hourly  more  hope- 
less. Week  after  week,  months  passed  aWay,  but  nothing  was  heard  of 
the  lost  one.  Francesco,  weary  of  that  life  which  was  now  deprned  of 
all  that  endeared  it  to  earth,  joined  the  army  of  his  countrymen, 
"  And  flang  it  away  in  battle  with  the  Turk. " 

Donati  still  lingered  around  that  home,  so  connected  with  the  luemorif 
.f  her  whom  he  idolized,  who  v/as  now  lost  to  him  for  ever ; 
R 


86 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


And  long  might  you  have^een, 

An  old  man  wandering,  Wmn  qaest  of  something, 
Something  he  could  not  find  — he  knew  not  what." 

And  where  was  Ginevra  ?  Half  breathless  with  haste,  she  ran  to  an 
old  gallery  in  the  upper  part  of  the  palace,  fancying  her  pursuers  had  &h 
most  overtaken  her.  As  she  hastily  glanced  round  the  dimly  lighted 
gallery,  in  search  of  a  hiding  place,  her  eye  rested  on  an  oaken  chest, 
beautifully  carved  and  ornamented  by  a  celebrated  sculptor  of  Venice, 
which  once  held  the  robes  of  a  prince  of  her  illustrious  race.  Quick  as 
thought,  Ginevra  exerted  her  strength  to  raise  the  cover.  The  chest 
easily  held  her  fragile  form.  Trembhng  with  joy  and  excitement,  she 
heard  the  loved  and  well-knovm  tones  of  Francesco's  voice,  who  was  fore- 
most in  pursuing  her ;  when  her  hand,  which  held  the  cover  ajar  to  admit 
the  air,  slipped  and  it  fell,  "  fastening  her  down  for  ever."  The  chest  was 
constructed,  for  greater  security,  with  a  spring,  which  locked  as  it  wag 
shut,  and  could  only  be  opened  by  one  outside  touching  a  particular  pari 
of  the  curious  workmanship.  But,  before  Francesco  reached  the  gallery, 
the  lovely  and  unfortunate  girl  had  ceased  to  breathe  in  that  closely  shut 
chest.  Many  times  they  passed  the  gallery,  but  they  heeded  not  the  hid- 
ing-place of  the  lost  bride :  which,  alas  !  was  destined  to  be  her  grave. 
No  flowers  could  shed  their  perfumes  over  her  grave,  watered  by  the 
tears  of  those  that  loved  her.  Her  fate  was  a  mystery,  and  soon 
her  memory  passed  away,  like  all  the  fleeting  things  of  earth.  And 
Donati,  —  Avhat  had  he  to  live  for "?  In  the  beautiful  language  of  Mrs. 
Hemans,  he  might  have  said, 

"  It  is  enough  !  mine  eye  no  more  of  joy  or  splendor  sees  ! 
I  go,  since  earth  its  flower  hath  lost,  to  join  the  bright  and  fair, 
And  call  the  grave  a  lovely  place,  for  thou,  my  child,  art  there." 

Examples  for  practice  may  be  taken  from  any  source  which  the  teacher 
or  the  student  may  select. 


XXV. 

ANAGRAMS. 

An  anagram  is  the  transposition  of  the  letters  of  a  word,  or 
short  sentence,  so  as  to  form  another  word,  or  phrase,  with  a 
different  meaning.  Thus,  the  letters  which  compose  the  word 
stone,  may  be  arranged  so  as  to  form  the  words  tones,  notes^ 
or  seton  ;  and,  (taking y  and  v  as  duplicates  of  i  and  u,)  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet  may  be  arranged  so  as  to  form  the 
words  Styx,  Phlegm,  quiz,  frown'' d  and  hack.* 


*  Pilate's  qtiestion  to  Jesus,  "  Quid  $n  Veritas  ?    (What  is  truth  ?^  has 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION, 


87 


Fxam'ples. 


.Abi-i  oiionici  Sj 

IVTrvrvrt—O'f T*tfiVGl 

GallantrieSj 

A.11  great  sins» 

TOriPVPirmpnin 

-A.  nice  cold.  pie» 

J-TXlOctllLUi  UJJCj 

Rr>fiT*A  niTTi  nnf'. 

J..TJLCIIX  V-'XJ. 

X  1  cfeu  y  Lei  iciiij 

T^P'Sf.  in  TlfJlVPT* 

jucou  111  iji  <x  y  C/X  • 

Punishment, 

Nine  Thumps. 

Penitentiary, 

Nay,  I  repent  it. 

Radical  Reform, 

Rare  mad  frolic. 

Revolution, 

To  love  ruin. 

James  Stuart, 

A  just  master. 

Charles  James  Stuart, 

Claims  Arthur's  Seat. 

Eleanor  Davies,  * 

Reveal,  0  Daniel. 

Dame  Eleanor  Davies, 

Never  so  mad  a  Ladie. 

For  exercises  of  practice,  the  student  may  select  his  OAvn  words  or  sen 
tences.  As  it  is  a  mere  literary  amusement,  the  exercise  is  not  considered 
worthy  of  much  attention. 


been  happily  converted  in  an  anagram  to  the  words,  "  Est  vir  qui  adest^'' 
(It  is  the  man  who  is  before  you.) 

Jablonski  welcomed  the  visit  of  Stanislaus,  King  of  Poland,  with  his  no- 
ble relatives  of  the  house  of  Lescinski,  to  the  annual  examination  of  the 
students  under  his  care,  at  the  gymnasium  of  Lissa,  with  a  number  of  ana- 
grams, all  composed  of  the  letters  in  the  words  Doimis  hescinia.  The 
recitations  closed  with  an  heroic  dance,  in  which  each  youth  carried  a 
shield  inscribed  with  a  legend  of  the  letters.  After  a  new  evolution,  the 
boys  exhibited  the  words  Ades  incolumis  ;  next,  Om.nis  es  himda ;  next, 
Omne  sis  lvxida\  fifthly.  Mane  sidus  loci ;  sixthly,  Sis  cohimna  Dei;  and 
at  the  conclusion,  I scande  solium. 

But  a  still  more  remarkable  anagram  than  any  that  has  been  presented, 
will  be  found  in  the  Greek  inscription  on  the  Mosque  of  St.  Sophia,  in  Con 
stantinople  : 

which  present  the  same  words,  whether  read  from  left  to  right,  or  from 
right  to  left. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  was  in  the  habit  of  concealing  his  mathematical  dis 
coveries,  by  depositing  the  principles  in  the  form  of  anagrams ;  by  which 
he  might  afterwards  claim  the  merit  of  the  invention  without  its  being 
stolen  by  others. 

*  This  lady  fancied  herself  a  prophetess,  and  supposed  the  spirit  of 
Daniel  to  be  in  her,  because  this  anagram  could  be  formed  from  her  name. 
But  her  anagram  was  faulty,  as  it  contained  an  I  too  much,  and  an  s  too 
little.  She  was  completely  put  down  by  the  anagram  made  from  the  name 
Va/me  Eleanor  Davies,  "Never  so  mad  a  ladie." 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


XXVI. 


OF  GRAMMATICAL  PROPRIETY. 

^.though  the  details  of  Grammar  and  grammatical  rule 
are  not  embraced  in  the  plan  of  this  work,  it  will  be  proper 
to  present  some  observations,  hj  way  of  review,  with  re<rard 
to  those  prmciples  which  are  most  frequently  disregarded  or 
forgotten  by  careless  writers.  Some  remarks  have  already 
been  made  with  regard  to  a  few  of  the  improprieties  which 
are  frequently  observed,  even  in  writers  of  respectability. 
Ihe  considerations  now  to  be  offered  are  presented  in  the 
form  of  directions. 

hP^^rtnT""-]'*-  ^n^<5etermimng  the  number  of  a  verb,  regard  musJ 
be  had  to  the  idea  which  is  embraced  m  the  subject  or  nominati  °e.  When- 
ever  the  idea  of  plurality  is  conveyed,  whether  it  be  expressed  by  one 
^  ord,  or  one  hundred,  and  however  connected,  and  in  whatever  number 
tne  subject  may  be,  whether  singular  or  plural,  all  verbs  relatino-  to  it 
must  be  made  to  agree,  not  with  the  number  of  the  word  or  words,  but 
with  the  number  of  the  idea  conveyed  by  the  words. 

r.^'^lwT.TJ'^-  '^Vi^  °^  pronouns,  the  same  remark  appHes, 
nameh_,  that  the  number  of  the  pronoun  must  coincide  with  the  tWa  con' 
tamed  m  the  word,  or  words,  to  which  the  pronoun  relates.  If  it  imply 
unity,  the  pronoun  must  be  singular ;  if  it  convey  plurality,  the  pronoun 
mu.t  be  plural.  These  du-ections  will  be  better  understood  by  an  example 
Thus  m  the  sentence  Each  of  them,  in  their  turn,  recede  the  benefits 
to  Avhich  thej/  are  entitled,"  the  verbs  and  pronouns  are  in  the  wrong  num- 
^S"  .Jhe  word  mc^i,  although  it  includes  all,  implies  but  o-ne  at  a  time. 
Ihe  Idea  therefore  is  the  idea  of  unity,  and  the  verb  and  pronoun  should 
be  smgular ;  thus,  Each  of  them  in  his  tmn  receives  the  benefit  to  which 
fie  is  entitled. 

The  same  remark  may  be  made  with  regard  to  the  following  sentences : 
EveiT  person,  whatever  be  their  (his)  station,  is  bound  by  the  duties  of 

Z^Tr^.A  .TheY^^'^^Si^'',''"^^^^^  ^^^o  is  the  sLxth  that  have 

(has)  lost  M«r  (his)  lives  (hfe)  by  these  means."  "  I  do  not  think  that  any 
one  should  mcur  censure  for  being  tender  of  their  (his)  reputation." 

DiKECTiON  3d  In  the  use  of  verbs  and  words  which  express  time, 
'/''^'^  ^^^^  P^'^P^^  t^^^e  employed  to  express  the 
time  that  is  mtended.  Perhaps  there  is  no  rule  more  frequently  violated 
than  this,  even  by  good  writers ;  but  young  wiiters  are  verv  prone  to  the 
error.  Thus,  the  author  of  the  Waverley  iTovels  has  the  followino-  sen- 
tence :  ^ 


*  See  Parker's  12mo  edition  of  the  Waverley  Novels,  Vol  XIH.  p.  14. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


89 


"'Description  '  he  said,  'was  (is)  to  the  author  of  a  romance,  exactly 
what  drawing  and  tinting  were  (are)  to  a  painter  ;  J^,^;^  (f/^ /{^f 
colors,  and,  if  properly  employed,  they  could  (can)  not  fail  to  place  the 
scene  \vhicli  wished  (wishes)  to  conjure  up,  as  effectually  before  the 
mind's  eye,  as  the  tablet  or  canvass  presents  it  to  the  bodily  organ,  ihe 
same  rulis.»  he  continued,  '  arppLied  (apply)  to  both  and  an  exuberance  of 
dialogue  in  the  former  case,  was  (is)  a  verbose  and  labonous  mode  of  com 
positfon,  which  (goes)  to  confound  the  proper  art  of  the  drama  a 
widely  different  species  of  composition,  of  which  dialogue  was  (is)  the  very 
essence;  because  all,  excepting  the  language  to  be  made  use  of  was  {x^) 
presented  to  the  eye  by  the  di-esses,  and  persons,  and  actions,  of  the  per 
formers  upon  the  stage.'  " 

The  author  wa.s  misled  throughout  in  the  tenses  of  the  verbs  in  thia 
extract,  by  the  tense  of  the  verb  said,  with  which  he  introduces  it. 

Direction  4th.  Whenever  several  verbs  belonging  to  one  common 
subiect  occur  in  a  sentence,  the  subject  or  nominative  must  be  repeated 
whenever  there  is  a  change  in  the  mood,  tense,  or  form  ot  the  verb. 

Direction  5th.  In  the  use  of  the  comparative  and  superlative  de 
crees  of  the  adjective,  it  is  to  be  remarked,  that  when  two  thmgs  or  per- 
sons only  are  compared,  the  comparative  degree,  and  not  the  superlative, 
should  be  used.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  Catharine  and  Mary  are  both 
well  attired;  but,  in  their  appearance,  Catharine  is  the  neatest,  Mary  the 
most  showv."  the  superlative  degree  of  the  adjective  is  improperly  applied. 
As  there  are  but  two  persons  spoken  of,  the  adjectives  should  be  m  the 
comparative  degree  namely  mater  and  more  shxmnj. 

Direction  6th.  Neuter  and  intransitive  verbs  should  never  be  used 
in  the  passive  form.  Such  expressions  as  was  gone,  is  grown,  is  Jallen,  is 
come*  may  be  relied  on,  &c.,  although  used  by  some  good  writers,  are  ob 
jectionable. 

*  Althouo-h  this  form  of  expression  is  sanctioned  by  Murray,  Lowth,  and 
other  good  authorities,  yet  reason  and  analogy  will  not  justify  us  m  assent 
ino-  to  their  decision;  for,  besides  the  awkwardness  of  the  expression,  it  is 
objectionable  as  being  an  unnecessary  anomaly.  But  the  author  has  been 
hiXenced  in  his  rejection  of  such  expressions  by  the  verv  sensible  and 
conclusive  remarks  of  Mr  Pickbourn  in  a  very  learned  ^.oA,  entitled  "  A 
Dissertation  on  the  English  Verb,"  published  m  London  1789.  Di.  1  riest- 
lev  in  his  "  Grammar/'  page  127,  says,;'  It  seems  not  to  have  been  deter- 
mined  by  the  English  grammarians,  whether  the  Pf^^^e  participles  of 
verbs  neuter  require  the  auxiUary  am  or  ha^je  before  them._  Ihe  French, in 
Jhis  case,  confine  themselves  strictly  to  the  former.''  "  This  remark  "  sa>^ 
Mr  Pickbourn,  "  concerning  the  manner  of  using  the  participles  of  h  rench 
neuter  verbs  is  certainly  not  well  founded;  for  most  of  them  are  conjugated 

SucreJp^essi^Tns  as  the  foUowing  have  recently  become  very  commpn, 
not  onlv  in  the  periodical  publications  of  the  /^Y'- ^"\^'?/?'u  tL  '^ttp^ 
■  favor  with  popular  writers  ;  as,  "  The  house  is  being  bndt."  1  he  street 
is  bein<^  paved."  "  The  actions  that  are  now  being  performed,  &c.  1  ha 
catents°  are  being  prepared."  The  usage  of  the  b?st  writers  does  not  sane 
Son  ttsTe^pSsi^ns';  and  Mr.  Pickbourn,  in  the  .work  just  q-ted  ays 
down  the  following  principle,  which  is  conclusive  upon  the  subject. 
»  Whenever  the  partt%le  in  ing  ia  joined  by  an  auxiliary  verb  to  a  ncmina 
8* 


AIDS  TO  EXGLISn  COMPOSITION. 


Direction-  7tli.  In  the  use  of  in-egular  verbs,  a  proper  distinction 
should  be  made  in  the  use  of  the  imperfect  tense  and  the  perfect  participle 

He  done  (did)  it  at  my  request:  He  ruji  (ran)  a  great  risk:  He  has 
mistook  (mistaken)  his  true  interest:  The  cloth  was  tvove  (woven)  of  the 
finest  wool :  He  writes  as  the  best  authors  would  have  ivrote  (written)  had 
they  writ  (wTitten)  on  the  subject:  The  bell  has  been  rmig  (runo;) :  I 
have  spoke  (spoken)  to  him  uj^on  the  subject.  These  sentences  are  in 
stances  where  the  proper  distinction  between  the  preterite  and  participle 
has  not  been  preserved. 

_  Direction  8th.  The  negative  adverb  must  be  followed  bv  the  nega 
tive  conjunction :  as,  '•  The  work  is  not  capable  of  pleasing  the  under- 
standing, 7w-r  (not  or)  the  imagination."  The  sentence  would  be  im 
proved  by  using  the  conjunctions  in  pairs,  substituting  neitJier  for  not. 

In  the  follo^^1ng  sentences,  the  conjunction  but  is  improperly  used.  "  1 
cannot  deny  but  tliat  I  was  in  fault."  "  It  cannot  be  doubted  but  that  thL* 
is  a  state  of  positive  gratification."  &c. 

Direction  9th.  There  must  be  no  ellipsis  of  anv  word.  wIh  n  sucl 
ellipsis  would  occasion  obscurity.  Tlius,  when  Ave  speak  of  "  the  law.?  ol 
God  and  man,"  it  is  uncertain  Avhether  one  or  two  codes  of  laws  are 
meant;  but,  in  the  expression,  "the  laws  of  God,  and  the  laws  of  man/ 
the  obscurity  vanishes.  A  nice  distinction  in  sense  is  made  bv  the  use  oi 
omission  of  the  articles.  "  A  white  and  red  house,"  means  bict  one  house , 
but,  "A  white  and  a  red  house,"  means  two  houses.  In  the  expression. 
"  Slie  has  a  Httle  modesty,"  the  meaning  is  positive ;  but,  by  omittins:  the 
article,  "  She  has  little  modesty,"  the  meaning  becomes  necrative.  "^The 
position  of  the  article,  also,  frequently  makes  a  great  difference  in  the 
sense,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following  examples :  "  As  delicate  a  little 
thing ; "  "  As  a  delicate  little  thing." 

_  Direction'  10th.  The  adverb  should  always  be  placed  as  near  as  pos 
sible  to  the  word  which  it  is  designed  to  qucil'ify.  Its  proper  position  i; 
generally  before  adjectives,  after  verbs,  and  frequently  between  the  auxil 
iary  and  the  verb.  The  following  sentence  exhibits  an  instance  of  thr 
improper  location  of  the  adverb:  "It  had  almost  been  his  dailv  custom 
at  a  certain  hour,  to  lisit  Admiral  Priestmau."  The  adverb  almost  shoulr" 
have  been  placed  before  daily. 

Direction  11th.  In  the  use  of  passive  and  neuter  verbs,  care  must 
be  taken  that  the  proper  nominative  is  applied.  That  which  is  the  object 
of  the  active  verb,  must  in  all  cafes  be  the  subject  or  nominative  of  the 
passive  verb.  Thus,  we  say.  with  the  active  verb,  "  Thev  offered  him 
mercy"  (i.  e.  to  him) :  and,  with  the  passive  verb,  "Mercy  was  offered  to 


tive  capable  of  the  action,  it  is  taken  actively ;  but,  when  joined  to  one 
incapable  of  the  action,  it  becomes  passive."  If  we  say,  'the  men  are 
building  a  house,'  the  participle  huilding  is  evidently  used  in  an  active 
sense ;  because  the  men  are  capable  of  the  action.  '  But  when  we  say, 
'The  house  is  building,'  or  'Patents  are  preparing,'  the  participles  huilding 
and  preparing  must  necessarily  be  undei'stood  in  a  passive  sense;  because 
neiti:er  the  house  nor  the  patents  are  capable  cf  action."  See  Piclhourn 
on  the  English  Verb,  pp.  7S-50. 


Air>3  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


91 


him  ;  "  not,  "  He  was  offered  mercy,"  because  "  mercy,  and  not  •  he  is 
the  thing  which  was  offered.  It  is  better  to  alter  the  expression,  by  sub 
stitutino-  a  svnonyme  with  a  proper  nominative  or  subject,  than  to  mtra 
duce  such  confusion  of  language,  as  must  necessarily  result  from  a  change 
in  the  positive,  fixed,  and  time  significations  of  words,  or  from  a  nseles 
violation  of  grammatical  propriety. 
In  accordance  with  this  dii-ection,  (see,  also,  Direction  6th,) 

instead  of  it  wotild  be  better  to  say, 

He  was  prevailed  on,  He  wjs  persuaded 


He  was  spoken  to,  —    ,  , 

She  was  listened  to,  She  was  heard. 

They  were  looked  at,  They  were  seen,  or  viewed. 

It  is  approved  of,  It  is  liked,  or  commended. 

He  was  spoken  of,  He  was  named  or  mentioned. 

It  is  contended  for.  It  is  maintained,  or  contested. 

\  was  tho'ngh?  o?, '  g  was  remembered  ..  con^^^ 

He  was  called  on  by  his  friend,  He  was  visited  by  his  friend. 

These  examples   are  commented  These  examples  ai-e  ridiculed  witii 

upon  with  much  humor,  much  humor. 

He  was  referred  to  as  an  oracle.  He  was  consulted  as  an  oracle. 

DiEECTioiT  12th.  All  the  parts  of  a  sentence  should  be  constructed 
in  such  a  manner  that  there  shall  appear  to  be  no  want  of  agreement  or 
connexion  among  them.  Thus,  the  following  sentence,  "He  was  more 
beloved,  but  not  so  much  admired  as  Cynthio,"  is  inaccurate  because, 
when  it  is  analyzed,  it  will  be,  "  He  was  more  beloved  w>  Cyntluo,  &c.  i  he 
adverb  mwe  requires  the  conjunction  than  after  it;  and  the  sentence 
should  be,  "He  was  more  beloved  ilian  Cynthio,  but  not  so  much  ad- 

"^Tiin:  in  the  sentence,  "If  a  man  Zwue  a  hundred  sheep,  and  one  of 
theni  floes  astray,"  &c.,  the  subjunctive  mood,  have,  is  used  alter  the  con 
junction  if,  in  the  first  part  of  the  sentence,  and  the  indicative,  goes  m  the 
second.   Both  of  these  verbs  should  be  in  the  indicative,  or  both  m  the 

^^No'definltrrulecan  be  given,  which  will  enable  the  learner  to  make  the 
parts  of  a  sentence  agree  in  themselves,  and  with  one  another.  Ihey 
should  be  diligently  compared,  and  a  similarity  of  constmction  be  carefully 
maintained;  while  the  learner  wUl  recollect,  that  no  sentence  can  be  con- 
sidered  grammatically  correct,  wMch  cannot  be  analyzed  or  parsed  by  the 
authorized  rules  of  syntax. 

[Examples  for  practice,  under  these  principles,  may  be  found  in  Paxket 
t  and  Fox's  "  Grammar,"  Part  H.,  or  in  Murray's  »  Exercises."  It  has  not 
I  been  deemed  expedient  to  insert  them  here.] 


92 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


xxvn. 

ON  THE  SELECTION  OE  WOEDS  AND  EXPEESSIONS. 

Besides  grammatical  correctness,  the  student  who  aims  at 
being  a  good  speaker  and  a  good  writer  must  pay  attention 
to  the  style,  or  manner  of  expressing  his  ideas.  Rules  relat- 
ing to  this  subject  pertain  to  the  science  of  rhetoric. 

Perspicuity,  (by  which  is  meant  clearness  to  the  mind, 
easiness  to  be  understood,  freedom  from  obscurity  or  ambigu- 
ity) should  be  the  fundamental  quality  of  style ;  and  the  study 
of  perspicuity  and  accuracy  of  expression  requires  attention, 
first,  to  words  and  phrases,  and  secondly,  to  the  constraction 
of  sentences. 

Of  Words  and  Phrases. 

The  words  and  phrases  employed  in  the  expression  of  our 
ideas  should  have  the  three  properties  C2^q^  purity ,  propriety, 
and  precision. 

Purity  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words,  and  such  construc- 
tions, as  belong  to  the  idiom  of  the  language  which  we  speak ; 
in  opposition  to  words  and  phrases  that  are  taken  from  oth- 
er languages,  or  that  are  ungrammatical,  obsolete,  newly  coin- 
ed, or  used  without  proper  authority. 

Purity  may  be  violated  in  three  different  ways.  Eirst,  the  words  may' 
not  be  English.    This  fault  is  called  a  barbarism. 

Secondly,  the  construction  of  the  word  may  not  be  in  the  English 
idiom.    This  fairlt  is  called  a  solecism. 

Thirdly,  the  words  and  phrases  may  not  be  empWed  to  express  the 
precise  meaning  which  custom  has  affixed  to  them.  This  fault  is  termed 
an  improjjriety. 

Propriety  of  language  consists  in  the  selection  of  such 
words  as  the  best  usage  has  appropriated  to  those  ideas  which  1(1 
we  intend  to  express  by  them ;  in  opposition  to  low  expres- 
sions, and  to  words  and  phrases  which  would  be  less  significant 
of  the  ideas  that  we  mean  to  convey. 

There  are  seven  principal  rules  for  the  preservation  of  propriety. 

1.  Avoid  low  expressions. 

2.  Supply  words  that  are  wanting. 

S.   Be  careful  not  to  use  the  same  word  in  different  senses. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


93 


4.  Avoid  the  injudicious  use  of  technical  terms;  that  is,  terms  or 
expressions  which  are  used  in  some  art,  occupation,  or  profession. 

5.  Avoid  equivocal,  or  ambiguous  words. 

6.  Avoid  unintelligible  and  inconsistent  words  or  phrases. 

7.  Avoid  all  such  words  and  plirases  as  are  not  adapted  to  tlie  ideas 
intended  to  be  communicated. 

Precision  signifies  tlie  retrenching  of  superfluities  and  the 
pruning  of  the  expression,  so  as  to  exhibit  neither  more  nor 
less  than  an  exact  copy  of  the  person's  idea  who  uses  it.* 

The  words  used  to  express  ideas  maybe  faulty  in  three  respects,  Firs':, 
they  may  not  express  the  idea  which  the  author  intends,  but  some  other 
which  only  resembles  it ;  secondly,  they  may  express  that  idea,  but  not  fully 
and  completely ;  thirdly,  they  may  express  it,  together  with  something  more 
than  is  intended.  Precision  stands  opposed  to  these  three  faults,  but 
chiefly  to  the  last.  Propriety  implies  a  freedom  from  the  two  former 
faults.  The  words  which  are  used  may  be  proper ;  that  is,  they  may  ex- 
press the  idea  intended,  and  they  may'express  it  fully ;  but  to  be  precise, 
signifies  that  they  express  thai  idea  ami  no  more. 

The  great  source  of  a  loose  style  in  opposition  to  precision,  is  the  inju- 
dicious use  of  words  termed  synonymous.  They  are  called  synonymous 
because  they  agree  in  expressing  one  principal  idea ;  but,  for  the  most  part, 
if  not  always,  they  express  it  with  some  diversity  in  the- circumstances.f 

While  we  are  attending  to  precision,  we  must  be  on  our  guard,  lest, 
from  the  desire  of  pruning  too  closely,  we  retrench  all  copiousness.  To 
unite  copiousness  and  precision,  to  be  full  and  easy,  and  at  the  same  time 
correct  and  exact  in  the  choice  of  every  word,  is,  no  doubt,  one  of  the 
highest  and  most  difficult  attainments  in  wiiting. 


xxvni. 


OF  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES,  t 

Sentences,  in  general,  should  neither  J)e  very  long,  noi 
very  short;  long  ones  require  close  attention  to  make  us 


*  Precision  is  promoted  by  the  omission  of  unnesessary  words  and  phrases ; 
and  is  opposed  to  Tautology,  or  the  repetition  of  the  same  sense  in  different 
words ;  and  to  Pleonasm,  or  the  use  of  superfluous  words. 

t  See  Lesson  XIX  The  student  who  wishes  for  exercises  on  the  sub 
jects  of  purity,  propriety,  and  precision,  will  find  them  in  Parker  and  Fox's 
Grammar,  Part  III.,  pp.  78-86,  or  in  Murray's  Exercises,  (Alger's  Edition.) 

t  The  substance  of  the  remarks  on  this  subject,  is  taken  from  Blair's 
Ehetoric.  A  great  part  of  the  language,  also,  is  copied  literally  from  that 
work. 


94 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


clearly  perceive  tlie  connexion  of  the  several  parts;  and 
short  ones  are  apt  to  break  the  sense,  and  weaken  the  con- 
nexion of  thought.  Yet  occasionally  they  may  both  be  used 
with  force  and  propriety. 

A  train  of  sentences,  constructed  in  the  same  manner,  and  with  the 
same  number  of  members,  should  never  be  allowed  to  succeed  one  anoth- 
er.  A  succession  of  either  long  or  short  sentences  should  also  be  avoided  • 
lor  the  ear  tires  of  either  of  them  when  too  long  continued.  A  proper 
mixture  of  long  and  short  periods,  and  of  periods  variously  constructed, 
not  only  gratifies  the  ear,  but  imparts  animation  and  force  to  style. 

The  properties  most  essential  to  a  perfect  sentence,  are  the 
four  following : 

1.  Clearness. 

2.  Unity. 

3.  Strength. 

4.  Harmony. 


0. 


XXIX. 


OF  CLEARNESS. 

The  first  requisite  of  a  perfect  senteD®e  is  clearness.  This 
implies  that  the  sentence  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  pre- 
sent the  meaning  intelligibly  to  the  mind,  and  without  am- 
biguity. 

The  faults  in  writing  most  destructive  to  clearness  are  two, 
namely :  a  wrong  choice  of  words,  or  a  wrong  collocation  of 
them. 

"  From  the  nature  of  our  language,"  says  Dr.  Blair,  "  a  capital  rule  in 
the  arrangement  of  our  sentences  is,  that  words  or  members  most  nearly 
related  should  be  placed  as  near  to  each  other  as  possible,  that  their  mu- 
tual relation  may  clearly  appear.  This  rule  is  frequently  neglected,  even 
by  good  Avriters.    Thus,  Mr.  Addison  says. 


"  By  greatness,  I  do  not  only  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single  object,  but  the 
largeness  of  a  whole  view."  ^      o       j  ? 

Here  the  place  of  the  adverb  only  makes  it  hmit  the  verb  mean  I  do 
not  only  mean.   The  question  may  then  be  asked,  "  What  does  ha  more 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


95 


man  mean  ?  "  Had  it  been  placed  after  bulk,  still  it  would  have  been 
wrong,  for  it  might  then  be  asked,  "  What  is  meant  beside  the  bulk  ?  "  Is 
it  the  color,  or  any  other  property  1  Its  proper  place  is  after  the  word 
object. 

"  By  greatness,  I  do  not  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single  object  only." 

For  then,  when  it  is  asked  —  "What  does  he  mean  more  than  the  bulk  of 
a  single  object  ?  the  answer  comes  out  precisely  as  the  author  intends, 
'  the  largeness  of  a  whole  view." 

This  exti-act  shows  the  importance  of  giving  the  right  position  to 
•iJverbs  and  other  qualifying  Avords.  Particular  attention  must  be  given 
dso  to  the  place  of  the  pronouns  who,  which,  what,  whose,  &c.,  and  of  all 
hose  particles  which  express  the  connexion  of  the  parts  of  speech.  The 
allowing  sentence  is  faulty  in  this  respect. 

'*  It  is  folly  to  pretend  to  arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents  of  life,  by 
aeaping  up  treasures,  which  nothing  can  protect  us  against,  but  the  good 
providence  of  our  Heavenly  Father," 

WTiich,  as  it  here  stands,  grammatically  refers  to  the  immediately  pre- 
ceding noun,  which  is  treasures,  and  this  would  convert  the  whole  period 
into  nonsense.    The  sentence  should  have  been  constructed  thus  : 

"  It  is  folly  to  pi-etend,  by  heaping  up  treasures,  to  arm  ourselves  against 
the  accidents  of  life,  against  which  nothing  can  protect  us  but  the  good 
providence  of  our  Heavenly  Father." 


XXX. 


TJOTTY. 

The  unity  of  a  sentence  implies  its  oneness.  The  sentence 
may  consist  of  parts  ;  but  these  parts  must  be  so  closely 
bound  together  as  to  make  an  impression  of  one  object  only 
upon  the  mind. 

There  is  generally  in  every  sentence  some  person  or  thing  which  is  the ' 
governing  word.    This  should  be  continued  so  if  possible  from  the  begui 
hing  to  the  end. 

Another  direction  or  rule  to  preserve  the  unity  of  a  sentence  may  bo 
thus  stated :  Never  crowd  into  one  sentence  ideas  which  have  so  little 
connexion  that  they  might  well  be  divided  into  two  or  more  sentences. 
It  is  the  safer  extreme  to  err  rather  by  too  many  short  sentences,  than  by 
one  that  is  overloaded  or  confused. 

A  third  rule  for  preserving  the  unity  of  a  sentence  is,  keep  clear  of  pa» 
renthesea  in  the  middle  of  it. 


96 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COIVrPOSITION. 


In  general  their  effect  is  extremely  bad,  being  a  perplexed  method  of 
disposing  of  some  thought,  wliich  a  writer  has  not  art  enough  to  introduce 
in  its  proner  place.  .  . 

The  fourth  rale  for  the  unity  of  a  sentence  is,  brmg  it  to  a  full  and 
perfect  close.  ,  ,  z. 

In  conformity  with  the  first  rule  stated  above,  it  may  be  observed,  that 
if  there  are  a  number  of  nominatives,  or  subjects  which  cannot  be  con- 
nected by  a  conjunction,  or  th/own  into  some  other  case  or  form,  the 
sentence  must  "be  divided,  and  the  parts  constructed  in  mdependent 

To  show  the  manner  in  which  the  rules  now  stated  should  be  applied, 
the  following  extract  is  presented  from  "  The  Quarterly  Review." 

"  The  youth  who  had  found  the  cavern,  and  had  kept  the  secret  to  him 
self,  loved  this  damsel ;  he  told  her  the  danger  in  time,  and  persuaded  her 
to  trust  herself  to  him."  In  this  sentence  there  is  perfect  unity,  the 
word  youth  is  the  governing  word,  and  the  pronoun  he,  its  representative, 
to  prevent  tautology,  is  substituted,  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  the  conjunc- 
tion and.  But  the  writer  continues,  "  They  got  into  a  canoe  ;  the  place  ot 
her  retreat  was  described  to  her  on  the  way  to  it,  —  these  women  swim  like 
mermaids,  — she  dived  after  him,  and  rose  in  the  cavern;  m  the  widest 
part  it  is  about  fifty  feet,  and  its  medium  height  is  guessed  at  the  same,  the 
roof  hung  with  stalactites." 

Here,  every  one  of  the  rales  of  unity  is  violated.  The  nominative  is 
changed  six  different  times.  Ideas  having  no  connexion  with  each  other, 
namely :  Thek  getting  into  a  canoe,  —  the  description  of  the  place  of  her 
retreat,— the  smmming  of  the  women,— her  divmg  and  rising  in  the 
cavern,  -  the  dimensions  of  the  cave,  and  the  ornaments  of  its  root,  are 
all  crowded  into  one  sentence.  The  expression,  "These  women  swim 
Hke  mermaids,"  is  properly  a  parenthesis,  occurring  m  the  middle  of  the 
sentence ;  and  the  clause,  "  the  roof  hung  with  stalactites,  does  not  bring 
the  sentence  to  a  full  and  perfect  close.  The  same  ideas  intended  to  be 
conveyed,  may  be  expressed  as  follows,  without  violating  either  of  the  laws 
of  unity. 

"  As  they  Rot  into  a  canoe,  to  proceed  to  the  cavern,  the  place  of  her 
retreat  was  described  to  her.  Like  the  rest  of  her  countrywomen,  she 
could  swim  like  a  mermaid,  and  accordingly  divmg  after  him,  she  rose  m 
the  cavern  ;  a  spacious  apartment  of  about  fifty  feet  in  each  of  its  dimen 
sions,  with  a  roof  beautifully  adorned  with  stalactites." 

The  unity  of  a  sentence  may  sometimes  be  preserved  by  the  use  of  the 
participle  instead  of  the  verb.    Thus:  "  The  stove  stands  on  a  platform 
which  is  raised  six  inches  and  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  room. 
Tin  5  sentence  is  better  expressed  thus :  "  The  stove  stands  on  a  platform, 
six  nches  in  height,  and  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  room. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


97 


XXXI. 

OF  THE  STRENGTH  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

The  third  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence  is  strength. 
By  this  is  meant  such  a  disposition  of  the  several  words 
and  members  as  will  exhibit  the  sense  to  the  best  advantage ; 
as  will  render  the  impression  which  the  period  is  intended  to 
make,  most  full  and  complete,  and  give  every  word,  and  mem- 
ber its  due  weight  and  force. 

To  the  production  of  this  effect,  perspicuity  and  unity  are  absolutely 
necessary;  but  more  is  requisite.  For,  a  sentence  may  be  clear:  it  may 
also  be  compact,  or  have  the  requisite  unity ;  and  yet,  by  some  unfavora 
ble  cu-curastance  m  the  structure,  it  may  fail  in  that  strength  or  liveUness 
ot  impression,  which  a  more  happy  collocation  would  produce 

The>s^  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a  sentence  is,  take  from  it 
all  redundant  words. 

Thus'  it  is  better  to  say, 

"  Called  to  the  exercise  of  the  supreme  command,  he  exerted  his  author- 
ity with  moderation,"  &c.,  than  "  Being  called  to  the  exercise,"  &c. 

It  is  a  most  useful  exercise,  on  reviewing  what  we  have  written,  to  con- 
tract that  circuitous  mode  of  expression,  and  to  cut  off  those  useless  ex 
crcscences,  which  are  usually  found  in  a  first  draught.  Care  must  be 
taken,  hoAvever,  not  to  prune  too  closely.  Some  leaves  must  be  left  to 
shelter  and  adorn  the  frUit. 

As  sentences  should  be  cleared  of  superfluous  words,  so  also  must  thev 
be  of  superfluous  members. 

Thus,  speaking  of  beauty,  one  of  the  most  elegant  writers  in  the  Enff- 
lish  language  says,  ^ 

,«^lJ?,Vr^;.?'^'^l'/''T''^7''^'*,.'^''^^®^  "i^^*^  w^*^  inward  joy  amd 
spreads  delight  over  the  faoulties:^ 

In  the  latter  member  of  this  sentence,  scarcely  anything  is  added  to 
what  was  expressed  in  the  first.  J     J      a    auueu  lo 

The  second  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a  sentence  is,  ray  partic- 
ular attention  to  the  use  of  copulatives,  relatives,  and  particles  employed 
for  transition  and  connexion.  ^ 

The  separation  of  a  preposition  from  tlie  noun  which  it  governs,  is  to 
be  avoided.  Thus, 

borrows  no  assistance  from,  yet  it  may  often  be  accora 
pamed  by,  the  advantages  of  virtue,"      "  ' 

It  would  be  better  to  say, 


98  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

.  Though  virtue  ho^ws  no  assisUnce  t^or.^,^^l-^..r^.i^  ^fft^™  ^ 

them." 

The  strength  of  a  sentence  is  much  injured  hy  an  unnecessary  mnlti 
plication  of  relative  demonstrativeiearticxpl^^^ 

aLayf  be  ins^^^^^^^^^   Thu«  we  may  say,  in  famihar  language, 

"He  brought  the  books  I  requested." 
But  in  dignified  discourse,  the  pronoun  which  should  be  inserted. 

«'  He  brought  the  books  which  I  requested." 

Solherus  possible,  the  and  may  be  repeated;  thus, 

"  Such  a  man  may  faU  a  victim  to  power,  but  truth,  and  reason,  and 
"\f.''rt"l"i"e' comma  must  precede  each  repetition  of  the 

conjunction  a^id.] 

''t"/eSr«ortant  wcr^.  -  P^^„  -  ge  be,mni^^  of  a  sen- 
ree-,  itS^tiP  t^:iSr»U  then  bring  it  out 
fully  at  the  close.  Thus, 

On  whatever  side  we  contemplate  Homer,  what  principaUy  strikes,  us 
is  his  wonderful  invention." 

The  foiMih  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a  sentence  is,  make  the 

^rweTe?a;sertion  should  never  foUow  a  stronger  one',  and  when  a 

^.siB:;f°^CtKSe^=S 

of  wMch  L  latter  is  the  better,  for  the  reasons  stated  above. 

»  We  flatter  ourselves  with  the  belief  that  we  have  forsaken  our  passions 
me'ZotlaSo^^^^^^^  flatter  ourselves  with  the  be 

lief  that  we  have  forsaken  them." 

The  fifth  m\e  for  constructing  sentences  with  ^t^^ngth  is  avoid  con 
elu»em  with  an  ^^J^^J^^^^^^ 

oTers  like  it  in  which  they  present  an  antithesis 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


99 


^  "  In  their  prosperity,  my  friends  shall  never  hear  of  me ;  in  their  adver- 
sity, always.''^ 

But  when  these  inferior  parts  of  speech  are  introduced  as  circumstan- 
ces, or  as  qualifications  of  more  important  words,  they  should  always  be 
disposed  of  in  the  least  conspicuous  parts  of  the  period.  Thus,  it  is  much 
better  to  say, 

*'  Avarice  is  a  crime  of  wJdch  wise  men  are  often  guilty,"  than  to  say, 
'Avarice  is  a  crime  which  wise  men  are  often  guilty  of." 

This  latter  form  is  a  phraseology,  which  all  correct  writers  shun. 
Lastly,  it  may  be  observed,  that  any  phrase  which  expresses  a  circum 
stance  only,  cannot,  without  great  inelegance,  conclude  a  sentence. 

The  sixth  and  last  rule  concerning  the  strength  of  a  sentence  is  this . 
In  the  members  jof  it,  where  two  things  are  compared  or  contrasted ; 
where  either  resemblance  or  opposition  is  to  be  expressed ;  some  resem- 
blance in  the  language  and  construction  ought  to  be  observed. 

The  following  passage  beautifully  exemplifies  this  rule : 

"  Homer  was  the  greater  genius :  Virgil  the  better  artist ;  in  the  one  we 
admire  the  man,  in  the  other  the  work.  Homer  hurries  as  with  a  com 
manding  impetuosity  ;  Virgil  leads  us  with  an  attractive  majesty.  Homer 
scatters  with  a  generous  profusion ;  Virgil  bestows  with  a  careful  magnifi- 
cence. Homer,  like  the  Nile,  pours  out  his  riches  with  a  sudden  overflow ; 
Virgi],_  fike  a  river  in  its  banks,  with  a  constant  stream.  When  we  look  up 
on  their  machines,  Homer  seems  like  his  own  Jupiter  in  his  terrors,  shaking 
Olympus,  scattering  lightnings,  and  firing  the  heavens.  Virgil,  like  the 
same  power  in  his  benevolence,  counselling  with  the  gods,  laying  plans  for 
empires,  and  ordering  his  whole  creation." 

Periods  thus  constructed,  when  introduced  with  propriety  and  not  too 
frequently  repeated,  have  a  sensible  beauty.  But  if  such  a  construction 
be  aimed  at  in  every  sentence,  it  betrays  into*  a  disagreeable  uniformity, 
and  produces  a  regular  jingle  in  the  period,  which  tii'es  the  ears  and 
plainly  discovers  affectation. 


XXXII. 

OF  THE  HARMONY  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

Sound  is  a  quality  much  inferior  to  sen^e ;  yet  it  must  not 
be  disregarded.  Pleasing  ideas,  and  forcible  reasoning,  lose 
much  by  being  communicated  to  the  mind  by  harsh  and  dis- 
agreeable sounds.  For  this  reason,  a  sentence,  besides  the 
qualities  already  enumerated,  under  the  heads  of  Clearness^ 


100  AIDS  TO  ENOLISH  COMPOSITION. 

Unity,  and  Strength,  should  Ukewise,  if  possible,  express  tlie 
quality  of  Harmony. 

The  rules  of  harmony  relate  to  the  choice  of  words;  their  arrange 
men"rder  and  disposition  of  the  members,  and  the  cadence  or  close 

"^|rf  aid  sp^.  «  a^^^ 

^:vt Jp^iTf  whth^SenTe:^^^^^^^^^^^  therefore ^jl'^^y^-^^^  £ 
Sn— tL  do  not  easify  coalesce  ;      ^^Xt^ilr^S^nS  sl 

Lt:n^7:;SihrvetS^^^^^^^    it;  a.  Juy.  siUU,,  lo.lU,J, 

-'""St  the  words  themselves  be  over  so  well  chosen,  and  well  sounding 
yel^  Ihey  tnulisposed,  the  melody  of  the  sentence  is  utterly  lost,  or 
greatly  impaired. 

Thougli  attention  to  tlie  words  and  members,  ajid  the  dose 
of  sentences,  must  not  be  neglected,  yet,  in  no  mstance  should 
trsptuity,  precision,  or  strength  of  sentiment,  be  sacrificed 
to  sound.  All  unmeaning  words,  introduced  merely  to  round 
fte  period,  or  fill  up  the  melody,  are  great  blemishes  m  wri^ 
W  They  are  chUdish  and  trivial  ornaments,  by  which  a 
sentence  always  loses  more  in  point  of  weight  than  it  can 
gain  by  such  additions  to  its  sound. 

The  members  of  asen^^^^^^^^^^^ 
ate  to  each  .J,^\^™oierire  more  clearly  understood,  and  better 

they  are  f„''^. '° '^s™^^^  not  regarded  ;  for  whatever  tires  the 
r:td  oSstSeTafls  Ipt%o  mar  tfe  strength  of  the  expression, 

..Virtue,  diligence,  and  m^jned^^^^ 
KS^Jotair:i5!-;ooi\Z^^^  l^-e  ever  bee.  for>nd 

the  surest  road  to  prosperity." 

An  author,  speaking  of  the  Trinity,  expresses  himself  thus : 

..ItisamysterywHchwefi^lybeHeve^^^^^^^^^ 
rnf''f*isrmy!We1rSSrf;2Sht'"Lnly  believe,  andthe  depth 
of  which  we  humtoly  adore." 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


101 


In  the  harmony  of  periods  two  things  are  to  be  considered.  Krst^ 
agreeable  sound  or  modulation  in  general,  without  any  particular  expres- 
sion. Next,  the  sound  so  ordered,  as  to  become  expressive  of  the  sense. 
The  first  is  the  more  common  ;  the  second  the  superior  beauty. 

The  beauty  of  musical  construction  depends  upon  the  choice  and  aiv 
rangement  of  words.  Those  words  are  most  pleasing  to  the  ear,  which 
arc  composed  of  smooth  and  liquid  sounds,  in  which  there  is  a  proper 
intermixture  of  vowels  and  consonants,  "without  too  many  harsh  conso 
nants,  or  too  many  open  vowels  in  succession.  Long  words  are  generally 
more  pleasing  to  the  ear  than  monosyllables ;  and  those  are  the  most 
musical,  which  are  not  wholly  composed  of  long  or  short  syllables,  but 
of  an  intermixture  of  them ;  such  as,  delight,  amuse,  velocity,  celerity,  beauti- 
ful, impetuosity.  If  the  words,  however,  which  compose  a  sentence,  bo 
ever  so  well  chosen  and  harmonious  ;  yet  if  they  be  unskilfully  arranged, 
its  music  is  entirely  lost. 

There  are  two  things  on  wliicli  the  music  of  a  sentence 
principally  depends  ;  these  are,  the  proper  distribution  of  the 
several  members  of  it,  and  the  close  or  cadence  of  the  whole. 

First,  the  distribution  of  the  several  members  should  be  carefully  re- 
garded. Whatever  is  easy  to  the  organs  of  speech,  is  always  grateful  to 
the  ear.  While  a  period  advances,  the  termination  of  each  member  forms 
a  pause  in  the  pronunciation  5  and  these  pauses  should  be  so  distributed, 
as  to  bear  a  certain  musical  proportion  to  each  other. 

The  next  thing  which  demands  attention,  is  the  close  or  cadence  of  the 
period.  The  only  important  rule,  which  can  here  be  given,  is  this,  when 
we  aim  at  dignity  or  elevation,  the  sound  should  increase  to  the  last ;  the 
longest  members  of  the  period,  and  the  fullest  and  most  sonorous  words, 
should  be  reserved  for  the  conclusion. 

It  may  be  remarked,  that  little  words  in  the  conclusion  of  a  sentence 
are  as  injurious  to  melody,  as  they  are  inconsistent  with  strength  of  ex 
pression.  A  musical  close  in  our  language  seems  in  general  to  require 
either  the  last  syllable,  or  the  last  but  one,  to  be  a  long  syllable.  Words 
which  consist  chiefly  of  short  syllables  5  as,  contrary,  particular,  retrospect^ 
seldom  terminate  a  sentence  harmoniously,  unless  a  previous  run  of  long 
syllables  have  rendered  them  pleasing  to  the  ear. 

Sentences  constructed  in  the  same  manner,  with  the  pauses  at  equal 
intervals,  should  never  succeed  each  other.  Short  sentences  must  be 
blended  with  long  and  swelling  ones,  to  render  discourse  sprightly  as  well 
as  magnificent. 

There  is,  however,  a  species  of  harmony  of  a  higher  kind 
than  mere  agreeableness  to  the  ear ;  and  that  occurs  when 
the  sound  is  adapted  to  the  sense.  Of  this  there  are  two  de- 
grees. First  the  current  of  sound  suited  to  the  tenor  of  a 
discourse.  Next,  a  peculiar  resemblance  effected  between 
some  object,  and  the  sounds  employed  in  describing  it.  \_See 
Onomatopceia,'] 

9* 


102  '    AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

tions  and  passions  of  the  mmd  ^icular  sounds  are  so  formed 

ll'^raZtkuX'^VI"  the  opening  of 

the  gates  of  Hell: 

"  On  a  sudden  open  fly, 
Witk  impetuous  recoU,  and  jarring  sounds 
The  infernal  doors,  and  on  their  hmges  grate 
Harsh  thunder." 

The  second  represents  the  opening  of  the  gates  of  Heaven 

"  Heaven  opens  ^de 
'  Her  ever-durmg  gates,  harmonious  sound 
On  golden  hmges  tummg." 

The  sound  of  words,  in  the  second  place,  is  frequently  employed  to 

^'^ifn^'^svUabies  naturally  excite  an  idea  of  slow  motion;  and  a  succes- 

'°¥he'^.d'se 'of  oWecS,  which  the  sound  of  words  is  capaWe  of  repre- 
good  example : 

"But  0  how  altered  was  its  sprightlier  tone 
When  Cheerfuhiess,  a  nymph  of  healthiest  nue ; 
Her  bow  across  her  shoulder  flung ; 
Her  buskms  gemmed  with  mommg  dew. 
Blew  an  inspLig  air  that  dale  and  tbicket  rang! 
The  hunter's  caU,  to  Fawn  and  Dryad  known.  ■ 
The  oak  crowned  sisters,  and  their  chaste-eyed  Queen, 
Satvrs  and  sylvan  boys  were  seen 
Peeping  from  forth  their  alleys  green  ; 
Bro\vn  Exercise  rejoiced  to  hear. 


rd%"edT;^^^^^  beechen  speax. 

Melancholy  and  gloomy  subjects  are  naturaUy  comiected  with  slow 
measure  and  long  words.    Thus : 

« In  those  deep  solitudes  and  awful  cells 
Where  heavenly  pensive  contemplation  dwells,  &c. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


103 


Through  glades  and  glooms  the  mingled  measure  stole.  * 
Exercises. 

The  student  maj*  correct  the  following  sentences :  ^ 
Want  of  Unity. 

The  successor  of  Hemy  the  Second  was  his  sonl'rancis  the  Second,  the 
first  husband  of  Mary,  afterwards  Queen  of  Scots,  who  died  after  a  reign 
of  one  year,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Charles  the  Ninth,  then  a 
boy  only  ten  years  old,  who  had  for  his  guardian  Catharine  de  Medicis- 
an  ambitious  and  unprincipled  woman. 

Wmt  of  Purity. 

The  gardens,  were  void  of  simplicity  and  elegance,  and  exhibited  much 
that  was  glaring  and  bizarre. 

W(vnt  of  Propriety. 

He  was  very  dexterous  in  smelling  out  the  views  and  designs  of  others. 
The  pretenders  to  polish  and  refine  the  English  language  have  chiefly 
multiplied  abuses  and  absurdities. 

Want  of  Precision, 

There  can  be  no  regularity  or  order  in  the  life  and  conduct  of  that 
man  who  does  not  give  and  allot  a  due  share  of  his  time  to  retirement 
and  reflection. 

Ward  of  Clearness. 

There  is  a  cavern  in  the  island  of  Hoonga  which  can  only  be  entered 
by  diving  into  the  sea. 

Want  of  Strength. 

The  combatants  encountered  each  other  with  such  rage,  that,  being 
eager  only  to  assail,  and  thoughtless  of  making  any  defence,  they  both 
fell  dead  upon  the  field  together. 

Want  of  Harrrumy. 

By  the  means  of  society,  our  wants  come  to  be  supplied,  and  our  lives 
axe  rendered  comfortable,  as  well  as  our  capacities  enlarged,  and  our  vir 
tuous  afiections  called  forth  into  their  proper  exercise,  t 


*  The  teacher  or  student  who  wishes  for  exercises  under  the  heads  of 
Clearness,  Unity,  Strength,  and  Harmony,  wiU  find  a  good  collecticn  of 
them  in  Murray's  Exercises,  an  appendage  to  his  large  Grammar ;  or  an 
abridgement  of  them  in  Parker  and  Fox's  Grammar,  Part  3d  in  the  ap 
pendix 

t  The  student  who  wishes  a  larger  collection  of  exercises  under  the  heads 
abovementioned,  will  find  them  in  Parker  and  Fox's  Grammar,  Part  3d. 


104  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


xxxm. 

SOTJND  ADAPTED  TO  THE  SENSE. 

"  'T  is  not  enough  no  harshness  gives  offence,^ ^ 
The  sound  must  seem  an  echo  of  the  sense. 

ONOMATOPCEIA. 

Onomatopoeia,  or  Onomatopy,  consists  in  the  formation  of 
words  in  such  a  manner  that  the  sound  shall  imitate  the  sense. 
Thus  the  words  huzz,  cradle,  crash,  flow,  rattle,  roar,  hiss, 
whistle,  are  evidently  formed  to  imitate  the  sounds  themselves. 
Sometimes  the  word  expressing  an  object  is  formed  to  imitate 
the  sound  produced  by  that  object;  ^s,  wave,  cuckoo,  wh.p- 
•poorwill,  whisper,  hum. 

It  is  esteemed  a  great  beauty  in  writing  when  the  words  selected  for 
the  expression  of  an  idea,  convey,  by  their  sound  some  resemblance  to 
the  subject  which  they  express,  as  m  the  foUowmg  hues . 

The  whitewashed  wall,  the  nicely  sanded  floor, 
The  varnished  clock  that  choked  hehmd  the  door.* 

Of  a  similar  character,  and  nearly  of  equal  merit,  are  Oiose  sentences 
or  expressions  which  in  iny  respect  imitate  or  represent  the  sense  which 
they  Se  em7^^^  to  express.  Thus  Gray  in  his  Elegy,  beautifully  ex- 
prelses  the  reluctant  feeling  to  which  he  aUudes  m  the  last  verse  of  the 
following  stanza : 

«  For  who,  to  dumb  forgetfulness  a  prey, 
This  pleasing  anxious  being  e'er  resigned, 
Left  the  warm  precincts  of  the  cheerful  day, 
Nor  cast  one  longing,  lingering  look  behind ! 

And  Pope,  in  his  "Essays  on  Criticism  "  in  a  manner,  t^^ough  different 
vet  scarcely  less  expressive,  gives  a  verbal  representation  of  his  idea,  by 
the  selection  of  his  terms,  in  the  foUowing  lines : 
"  These,  equal  syllables  alone  require,^ 
Though  oft  the  ear  the  open  vowels  tire, 


*  These  lines  will  not  fail  to  recall  to  the  memory  of  the  classical  stu 
dent  thSe  pSriy  g^^^^^  in  one  of  which  he  descnbes 

the  galloping  of  a  horse : 

"  Quadrupedante  putrem  sonitu  quatit  ungula  campum." 
and  in  another  the  appearance  of  a  hideous  monster : 

«  Monstrum  horrendum  in  forma  ingens  cui  lumen  ademptum." 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  105 

While  expletives  their  feeble  aid  do  join, 
And  ten  low  words  oft  creej)  in  one  dull  lineP 

"  A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song, 
That^  like  a  wounded  snake^  drags  its  slow  length  along.* 

"  Soft  is  the  strain,  when  Zephyr  gently  blows, 
And  the  smooth  stream  in  smoother  numbers  flows, 
But  when  loud  surges  lash  the  sounding  shore, 
The  hoarse,  rough  verse  should  like  the  torrent  roar. 
When  Ajax  strives  some  rock's  vast  weight  to  throw, 
The  line  too  labors,  and  the  words  move  slow. 
Not  so  when  swift  Camilla  scours  the  plain. 
Flies  o'er  the  unbending  corn,  and  skims  along  the  main." 

As  an  exercise  in  Onomatopoeia,  the  student  may  select  such  worda 
as  he  can  recall  in  which  the  sound  bears  a  resemblance  to  the  significiv- 
tion. 


XXXIV. 

DEFEsTITION,  AND  DISTINCTION  OR  DIFrERENCE. 

The  object  of  this  exercise  is  to  accustom  the  student  to  ac- 
quire clear  ideas  of  things,  and  to  perceive  distinctions  and 
differences  wherever  they  exist.  Clear  ideas  of  a  subject 
must  be  acquired  before  any  thing  can  be  correctly  said  or 
written  upon  it. 

A  definition,  as  described  by  logicians,  consists  of  two  parts,  which  they 
call  the  genus  and  the  differerwe.  The  genns  is  the  name  of  the  class  to 
which  the  object  belongs.  The  difference  is  the  property  or  properties 
by  which  the  individual  thing  to  be  defined  is  distinguished  from  other 
individuals  of  the  same  class.  Thus,  if  a  definition  is  required  of  the 
word  /usiice,  we  may  commence  by  saying, "  Justice  is  that  virtue  wliich 
induces  us  to  give  every  one  his  due."  Here,  virtue  is  the  class  to  which 
the  object  belongs ;  but  this  part  of  the  definition  may  be  applied  to  hon- 
esty, another  quality  of  the  same  class,  as  well  as  to  justice ;  for  "  Honesty 
is  also  a  virtue  which  induces  us  to  give  every  one  his  due."  Something 
more,  therefore,  must  be  added  to  our  definition,  by  v^hich.  justice  may  be 
distinguished  from  honesty;"  and  this  something  more,  in  whatever  form  it 
raay  be  presented,  will  be  the  difference  which  excludes  honesty  from  tho 
same  definition. 


106 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Example, 

JUSTICE. 

Justice  is  that  virtue  wMch  induces  us  to  give  to  every  one 
his  due.  It  requires  us  not  only  to  render  every  article  oi 
property  to  its  right  owner,  but  also  to  esteem  every  one  ac 
cordin/to  his  merit,  giving  credit  for  talents  and  virtues 
wherever  they  may  be  possessed,  and  withholdmg  our_  appro- 
bation from  every  fault,  how  great  soever  the  temptation  that 
leads  to  it. 

It  willeasUy  be  seen  from  this  definition  in  what  the  difference  hes, 
wMcHxclS  honesty  from  the  definition.  Honesty,  it  is  true,  requires 
Jhat  we  should  render  to  every  one  his  due.  But  honesty  does  not  neces- 
Baril7imply  the  esteeming  of  every  one  according  to  his  ment,  giving 
credit  for  talents  and  virtues,^  &c. 

A  definition  should  generaUy  be  an  analysisis  of  the  thing 
defined,  that  is,  it  should  comprise  an  enumeration  of  its  pnn- 
cipal  qualities  or  attributes. 

Exam'pU  2c?. 
A  Swallow. 

'  1.  A  swallow  is  an  anhnal—This  definition  is  not  correct  because  it 
will  apply  also  to  a  horse,  or  a  cow,  or  a  dog,  or  a  cat,  as  weU  as  to  a 

'''2"a 'swaUow  is  a  bird.  -  So  also  is  an  eagle,  or  a  goose,  and'therefore 
this  de£mtion  is  not  sufficiently  distinct. 

3.  A  swallow  is  an  animal  which  has  two  legs. —And  so  is  a  man, 
and  therefore  this  definition  is  not  sufficiently  exclusive. 

4.  A  swallow  is  an  animal  that  has  two  legs,  and  wmgs.  — And  so  is  a 
fci :  and  therefore  this  definition  is  faulty.  r  .t,   .   ov,;i  o  Tmr^ 

5'.  A  swaliow  is  an  animal,  that  has  wings  feathers,  and  a  hard, 
glossv  bill,  with  short  legs,  a  forked  tail,  ^^.d./^^;^,  f^^^^^^^^^^ 
ceeding  aU  other  birds  in  the  unthing  rapidity  of  its  flight  and  evolutions 
Its  upper  parts  are  steel  blue,  and  the  lower  parts         l^f^'  J^f^f 
color.   It  seeks  the  society  of  man,  and  attaches  its  nest  to  the  raiters  m 

^"^This  definition  contains  the  difference,  y^f^  as  the  class,  and  may 
aerefore  be  .considered  as  sufficiently  correct  for  our  present  purpose,  t 


*  See  Bynopymes,  page  40. 

t  See  Parker  and  Fox's  Grammar,  Fart  IH.,  No.  387. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


107 


Example  Sd. 
Eternal. 

The  term  eternal  is  properly  applied  to  that  only  which  always  tas  ex- 
ited and  always  will  exist.    It  implies  without  beginning  and  witfwut  end. 

This  definition  excludes  the  application  of  the  term  eternal  from  every 
jhing  that  ever  had  a  beginning,  as  well  as  from  that  which  will  ever  have 
an  end.  The  circumstance  of  having  no  beginning  is  the  specific  difference 
between  the  terms  eternal  and  infinite.  Infinite^  endless,  unceasing,  &c., 
imply  only  without  end. 

After  explaining  the  meaning,  or  giving  thie  definition  of 
the  terms  in  this  exercise,  the  student  should  be  required  to 
give  an  instance  of  the  proper  applicatipu  of  the  word. 


Exercises, 


Give  a  definition  to  the  following  words,  and  point  out  the  distinction 
or  diff'erence  between  them  and  other  words,  which  in  some  respect 
resemble  them. 


Temperance. 

Equity. 

Synthesis. 

Analogy. 

Comparison. 

Judgment. 

Reasoning. 

Description. 


To  Transpose. 
To  Disregard. 
Excellence. 
Activity. 
To  Disobey. 
Tautology. 
Narration. 
Outline. 


Amplify. 

Composition. 

History. 

Astrology. 

Literature. 

Science. 

Art. 


The  distinction  or  difference  between  two  subjects  may 
likewise  be  exhibited  as  in  the  following 

Example. 

Grammar,  rhetoric,  and  logic  are  kindred  branches  of 
science,  but  each  has  its  separate  department  and  specific  ob- 
jects. Ehetoric  teaches  how  to  express  an  idea  in  proper 
words ;  grammar  directs  the  arrangement  and  inflections  of 
the  words;  logic  relates  to  the  truth  or  corr^  less  of  the 
idea  to  be  expressed.  Grammar  addresse^^/  to  th(3  un- 
derstanding; rhetoric,  to  the  imagination-;  logic,  to  the  judg- 
ment. Ehetoric  selects  the  materials;  grammar  combines- 
them  into  sentences ;  logic  shows  the  agreement,  or  disagree- 
ment, of  the  sentences  with  one  another.   A  sentence  may 


108  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

be  grammatically  correct,  but  rhetorically  incorrect,  as  in  the 

following  extract :  .      , ,         -,  1 

«  To  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles,  and,  by  opposmg, 

end  them."  ,  j. 

Here  every  word  is  gi-ammatically  correct ;  but  to  repre- 
sent a  man  clad  in  armor  to  fght  water,  is  a  mixed  metaphor, 
violating  one  of  the  ftmdamental  principles  of  rhetoric.  ^  bo, 
also,  a  sentence  may  be  both  grammaticaUy  and  rhetoricaUy 
faultless,  whHe  it  violates  logical  principles.  Thus,  "  AU  men 
are  bipeds,  and,  as  birds  are  also  bipeds,  birds  are  to  be  con- 
sidered as  men." 

JExercises. 

The  student  rnay  show  the  distinction  between  th£  following  words  : 

Quack  and  charlatan. 

Projector,  speculator,  and  economist 

Book-worms  and  syllable  hunters. 

Th?  woXzfi^XS'^Sl^^^  to  pohticians,  theologians,  and  philoso- 
phers ;  Ist,  when  assumed  by  themselves ;  2dly,  when  apphed  to  them  by 
their  adversaries. 

The  different  senses  in  which  the  word  independence  is 
used,  as  applied  to  nations  and  individuals,  to  a  man's  charac- 
ter, opinions,  and  circumstances,  is  explamed  in  the  followmg 

Example. 

When  we  speak  of  a  nation's  independence,  we  mean,  that  it 
is  not  connected  with  any  other  nation,  so  as  to  be  obliged  to 
receive  laws  or  magistrates  from  it,  to  pay  a  revenuemto  its 
treasury,  or  in  any  way  to  submit  to  its  dictates.  When  we 
see  a  nation  whose  laws  are  framed  by  its  o^ti  magistrates, 
whether  elective  or  hereditary,  without  regard  to  the  pleasure 
of  any  other  nation ;  where  the  taxes  are  levied  for  the  sup- 
port of  its  own  interest,  and  for  the  maintenance  of  its  own 
macristrates  ;  where  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  consent  of 
another  should  be  obtained,  before  it  is  at  liberty  to  make 
war  upon  a  foreign  state,  or  to  enter  into  alliance  with  any 
foreign  power  that  they  please,  — to  that  nation  custom  gives 
the  epithet "  mdependent."  .„  ^    .  x 

Nor  does  the  submission  of  a  people  to  the  wiU  of  a  despot 
wntradict  its  claun  to  be  considered  an  independent  nation. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  109 


The  subjects  are,  indeed,  dependent  upon  the  caprice  of  a 
tyrant,  and  he  has  absokite  power  over  their  lives,  property, 
and  political  interest ;  but  this  internal  slavery  does  not  ex- 
clude them  from  being  considered  independent  as  a  nation, 
and  from  taking  a  part,  as  such,  in  the  disputes  of  other  gov- 
ernments, provided  that  their  own  master  is  not  also  sul^'ect 
to  some  foreign  power.  A  subject  province  becomes  inde- 
pendent, when,  fiudmg  itself  strong  enough  for  its  purpose,  it 
throws  off  the  yoke  of  the  ruHng  power,  and  declares  itself 
free  ;  and  it  is  recognized  as  such  by  other  nations,  if  it  suc- 
ceeds m  establishing  its  claim,  either  by  arms,  or  the  consent 
of  the  government  to  which  it  was  subject. 

A  man  is  said  to  be  independent  in  his  character,  when  he 
does  not  permit  the  opinion  of  the  world  to  influence  his  ac- 
tions. ^  He  is  mdependent  in  his  opinions,  when  he  maintains 
thena  m  spite  of  ridicule,  or  the  ideas  of  the  rest  of  the  com- 
munity. If  he  conducts  himself  according  to  these  opinions, 
carries  into  action  his  ideas  of  right  and  wrong,  though  they 
be  contrary  to  what  every  one  else  thinks,  he  is  independent 
in  character.  A  man  may  he  so  subservient  to  another,  that 
he  will  disguise  his  own  opinions,  and  uphold  those  of  the 
other.  For  some  benefit  conferred,  or  from  the  expectation 
of  some  advantage,  he  wHl  stoop  to  flatter  the  notions  of  his 
patron,  pretend  to  guide  all  his  actions  according  to  those 
ideas,  and  even  regulate  his  conduct  by  rules  which  he  knows 
to  be  wrong;  and  merely  for  the  sake  of  being  permitted  to 
expect  a  shght  favor.  Such  a  man  has  no  claim  to  indepen- 
dence of  character  or  opinions. 

When  a  person  does  not  rely  on  the  profits  of  his  business 
for  subsistence,  but  has  laid  up  or  received  as  an  inheritance 
a  sum  of  money,  the  income  of  which  is  sufficient  for  his 
mamtenancc,  he  is  considered  independent  in  his  circum- 
stances. 

Independence  is,  in  most  cases,  an  exceUent  quality  and 
state ;  but  when  a  man's  independence  of  character  leads  him 
to  abuse,  and  refuse  to  conform  to,  the  customs  of  his  country, 
because  he  perceives  in  them  something  absurd,  it  makes  him 
appear  ridiculous. 


10 


110  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOM. 


XXXV. 
ANALOGY. 


Analogy,  as  defined  by  Jolinson,  is  a  resemblance  between 
two  things  with  regard  to  some  circumstances  or  efifects. 

Webster  defines  it  thus :  An  agreement  or  likeness  between 
tbin-s  in  some  circumstances  or  eflFects,  when  the  tbmgs  are 
otherwise  entirely  different.  Thus  learning  is  said  to  e>%to 
the  mind,  that  is,  it  is  to  the  mind  what  hght  is  to  the  eye. 
enabUng  it  to  discover  what  was  hidden  before.* 

Example. 

'  Youth  and  morning  resemble  each  other  in  many  partjcu- 
lars.    Youth  is  the  first  part  of  Ufe.    Mormng  is  the  first 
mrt  of  the  day.    Youth  is  the  time  when  preparation  is  to  be 
made  for  the  business  of  life.    In  the  morning,  arrangements 
are  made  for  the  employment  of  the  day.    In  youth,  our 
spirits  are  li-'ht,  no  cares  perplex,  no  troubles  annoy  us.  In 
he  morninAhe  prospect  is  fair,  no  clouds  arise,  no  tempest 
toerens  no  commotion  among  the  elements  impends.  In 
youth  we  form  plans  which  the  later  periods  of  If  cannot 
l^^cutl  and  th^e  morning,  Ukewise.  is  often  productive  of 
promises  wHch  neither  noon  nor  evening  can  perform. 

From  this  example  it  wiU  be  seen  that  subjects  which  in 
reality"  ave  in  themselves  no  actual  resemblance,  may  be  so 
conlraCd  as  to  present  an  appearance  of  -^^.^l-ce  ^^^^^^^^ 
efi-ects  Many  of  the  beauties  of  poetry  arise  from  the  poet  s 
ob'e  v  n-  thele  similitudes,  and  expressing  them  in  appro- 
™iate  tai-ua.'e.  Thus  darkness  and  adversity,  comfort  and 
C  liTandAe  ocean,  evening  and  old  age,  misfortune  and 
attom  a  deUman  and  a  shepherd,  smUes  and  sunshine, 
?eSs™d  rain,  fguilty  conscience  and  a  defenceless  body,  are 
^ibTertfwhicl^  in°themselves  have  no  actual  similitude;  ye^ 
whfn  contrasted  with  their  effects,  points  of  resemblance  will 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  HI 


be  readily  seen,  which  show  an  obvious  analoo-y.  Thus  also 
in  the  foHowing  extract  the  poet  in  addressing  the  sun  shows 
an  analogy  between  the  evaporation  of  water,  and  the  flio-ht 
01  a  bird.  ° 


"  Thou  lookest  on  the  waters,  and  tliey  glow 
And  take  them  wings  and  mount  aloft  in  air,"  &e. 


The  skilful  allusion  to  such  analogies  constitutes  the  highest 
art  ot  the  poet,  as  it  forms  also  the  most  pleasing  beauty  of 
poetry.  Indeed,  without  such  allusions,  poetry  loses  aU  of  its 
charms,  and  verse  degenerates  into  mere  '  sing-song: 

It  will  be  a  useful  exercise  for  the  student  to  prepare  Hsts 
ot  subjects  between  which  an  analogy  may  be  traced. 


XXXVI. 

FIGUEATIVE  LANGUAGE. 

A  Figure,  in  the  science  of  language,  is  a  departure  from 
the  common  forms  of  words,  from  the  established  njles  of 
syntax,  or  from  the  use  of  words  according  to  their  Hteral 
signification. 

A  departure  from  the  common  form  of  words  is  called  a  figure 
ot  etymology,  or  an  etymological  figure.    {_See  Elision, 

A  departure  from  the  established  rules  of  syntax  is  caUed  a 
Byntactical  figure.    [See  Enallage,  Hyperhaton,  Pleonasm,  Sccl 

A  departure  from  the  use  of  words  in  their  literal  significa- 
tion is  called  a  figure  of  rhetoric,  or  a  rhetorical  figure.  [See 
J  rope,  Metaphor.']  ^ 
^  Figurative  language  properly  includes  all  of  these  different 
kinds  o^  figures ;  but  the  term  is  sometimes  restricted  to 
rhetorical  figures.* 


.Z^nl?A^^'^l  Rhetoric  "  enumerates  a  list  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  figures 
connected  with  the  subjects  of  Logic,  Rhetoric,  and  Grammar  l^i e  work 
Hirc'aS^n'J;^'  ^?  ^^tfT'^  a^d  possesses  'some  S^f;  v^LlZ^^, 
His  cautions  with  regard  to  the  use  of  figures  are  so  characteristic  that  ^hev 
may  afford  some  amusement,  if  not  edification  to  the  studenL  The  foliow 
mg  IS  his  language  with  regard  to  Tropes  and  Figures : 
"  The  faults  of  Tropes  are  nine  : 

"  Of  tropes  perplext,  harsh,  frequent,  swoU'n,  fetched  far. 

D  7  8  9 

HI  representmg,  forced,  low,  lewd,  beware." 


112  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Many  words  that  axe  used  in  common  discourse  have  two  ^igB^cations 
or  4ther  significations  of  two  different  kinds;  namely,  a  literal  and  a 

'^It?dt"be  nsed  literally  or  to  have  its  literal  signification 
whtnTis  uLd  in  a  manner,  which  is  -^horized  by  the  gen^^^^^^^ 
of  those  who  speak  and  write  with  correctness  the  language  m  which  it  is 


A  word  is  used  figuratively,  when  though  it  retains  its  usual  sigmf^ca,- 
tiot  ilTs  apphed  in  a  manner  different  from  its  common  application 
Thus  ^N^^eTwe  speak  of  the  head  of  an  animal,  we  use  the  word  h^id  m  its 
Y^M^^^-^-  as  implying  that  part  of  the  body  ^^^^^l^^l 
eyes,  nos^e,  mouth,  ears,  &c.   But  when  we  speak      ^^^^^  .^f  ^ 

iiiSfo?  ^LTmrnrbeTrM 

tion  from  I  Greek  word,  which  signifies  a  turning  f  .  'S- 
nroperlv  means  the  earliest  part  of  the  morning,  or  of  the  day ,  ju^^ 
exSesTes  the  close  ox  Mter  part  of  day.  But,  by  a  rhetorical  figure, 
the  e  worlds  lie  used  to  express  the  earliest  and  latest  parts  of  other  sub- 
ects  Thus,  "the  c/au^^  of  bhss,"  expresses  the  commencement  of  h^^^ 
or  blss;  and,  "the^^^^^^^^^ 

Se^t^  PodTou:  Ti^-o^^ent;''^^^^^^^^     Ms  de^aLre,"  impHes 
rfie  latest  point  of  time,  previous  to  his  departure. 
The  use  of  figures,  or  of  figm-ative  language,  is,— 

1.  They  render  the  language  copious.  ^ 

2.  The  richness  of  language  is  thereby  1?^^^^^^ 

3.  They  increase  the  power  and  expressiveness  of  language. 

4.  They  impart  animation  to  style.* 

There  is  another  class  of  figures  styled  ^^j'* 
nearly  resemble  tropes,  that  the  difference  cannot  always  be 
easily  described. 


»'  And  the  faults  of  figures  are  six : 

1  2  3 

"Figures  unnatural,  senseless^,  too  fine  spun,  . 

Over  adorned,  afi-ected,  copious,  shun."  (!'.!) 

»  Khetoric  made  Easy,  by  John  Hohnes,  London,  1755. 
*  The  student  who  would  see  a  beautiful  illustration  of  this  subject,  i. 
referred  to  Newman's  Rhetoric,  chap.  cJd 


AIDS  TO   ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  113 


application  of  a  word,  in  its  literal  meaning,  from  one  object,  or  class  of 
objects,  to  another,  founded  upon  some  similarity,  analogy,  or  resem- 
blance.* 

A  metaphor  is  a  simile  or  comparison  expressed  in  one 
word.  Thus;  The  soldiers  were  lions  in  the  combat:  The 
soldiers  fought  like  lions.    \_See  Comparison.'] 

_  A  trope  is  the  mere  change,  or  turning,  of  a  word  from  its  original  sig- 
nification. Hence,  if  the  word  be  changed,  the  figure  is  destroyed.  Thus 
when  we  say,  The  cionds  foretell  rain,  we  have  a  trope  in  the  word  foreteli. 
If  the  sentence  be  read,  The  clouds  foreshow  rain,  the  figure  disappears. 

The  following  examples  will  clearly  illustrate  the  difference 
between  plain  and  figurative  language : 

Examples. 

Figurative.  She  had  been  the  pupil  of  the  village  pastor, 
the  favorite  lamb  of  his  little  flock. 

Plain.  She  had  been  the  pupil  of  the  village  clergyman^ 
the  favorite  child  of  his  small  congregation. 

Figurative.  Man!  thou  pendulum  between  a  smile  and 
tear. 

Plain.  Man !  thou  who  art  always  placed  between  happi- 
ness and  misery,  but  never  wholly  enjoymg  the  one,  nor  to- 
tally afflicted  with  the  other. 

Figurative.  He  found  the  tide  of  wealth  flowing  merely  in 
the  channels  of  trafiic ;  he  has  diverted  from  it  invigorating 
rills  to  refresh  the  garden  of  literature. 

^  Plain.  He  saw  that  men  of  wealth  were  employing  their 
riches  only  in  the  business  of  commerce.  He  set  the  example 
of  appropriating  a  portion  of  wealth  to  the  increase  and  dif- 
fusion of  knowledge. 

Figurative.  A  stone,  perhaps,  may  tell  some  wanderei 
where  we  lie,  when  we  came  here,  and  when  we  went  away ; 
but  even  that  will  soon  refuse  to  bear  us  record:  Time's 
effacing  fingers  wiU  be  busy  on  its  surface,  and  at  length  wear 
it  smooth. 

Plain.  A  stone,  perhaps,  may  be  erected  over  our  graves, 
with  an  inscription  bearing  the  date  of  our  birth,  and  the  day 


*  _  Metaphore  is  an  alteration  of  a  worde,  from  the  proper  and  naturall 
meanmg  to  that  which  is  not  proper,  and  yet  agreeth  thereunto  by  some 
iikenesse  that  appeareth  to  be  into  iV'—Wilson—  The  Arte  of  Rhetongice 

10* 


• 


114  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

«f  o„r  death ;  but  even  that  will  not  last  long.  In  the  course 
rft'me  the  st'one  «iU  be  mutUated  or  broken,  and  the  n^scnp- 
tion  be  entirely  destroyed. 

I,  will  readily  be  seen  from  these  examples  that  analogy  is 
thJV— ion/of  a  ^-^^Vro^'^^^l^^ 

Ues  between  a  clergyman  and  a  shepherd ;  a  congregation  and 
•a  flocf  of  sheep,  the  Uttle  ones  of  the  congregation  and  the 

^Tllrb:found  a  tiy  useful  exercise  for  the  student  .o 
traceTul  tht  analogies  thL  P-nted  X^^™ 


exercise. 


■  Extracts. 

The  meek-eyed  morn  appears  motlier  of  dews, 
At  first  faint  gleaming  in  tlie  dappled  ea.t. 
How  reverend  is  the  face  of  this  tall  Pj^e 
Whose  ancient  pillars  rear  their  marble  heads, 
To  bear  aloft  its  arched  and  ponderous  roof 
By  its  own  weight  made  steadfast  and  immovable, 
Looking  tranquilhty ! 
Youth  is  not  rich  in  time :  it  may  be  poor : 
Part  with  it,  as  with  money,  spanng ;  pay 

To  thy  sick  heart. 

Throngs  of  insects  in  the  glade 
Trv  their  thin  winssrand  dance  in  the  warm  beam 
ihltwlUd  them  into  life.    Even  ^^^^^^ 
Partake  the  deep  contentment ;  as  the}  nenci 
To  he  soft  winds,  the  sun  from  the  blue  sky 
fooks  in!  and  sheds  a  blessing  on  the  scene. 
The  breath  of  night's  destructive  to  the  hue 
Of  every  flower  that  blows. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


115 


So  sajdng,  her  rash  hand  in  evil  hour 
Forth  reaching  to  the  fruit,  she  pkicked,  she  ate. 
Earth  felt  the  wound,  and  iS'ature  from  her  seat, 
Sighing  through  all  her  works,  gave  signs  of  woe 
That  all  was  lost. 

The  voice  of  thy  brother's  blood  crieth  unto  me  from  the  ground. 

Thou  'rt  purpling  now,  O  Sun,  the  ^'ines  of  Canaan, 
And  crowning  with  rich  hght  the  cedar  tops  of  Lebanon. 

The  tempests  of  fortune. 

The  last  steps  of  day. 
The  storms  of  adversity. 

My  ear  is  pained, 
My  soul  is  sick  with  every  day's  report 
Of  wi-ong  and  outrage  ^\^th  Avhich  earth  is  filled. 

The  superb  lotus  was  holding  up  his  cup  to  the  sun.  as  if  for  a  full 
draught  of  his  light. 

Life  is  a  sea  as  fathomless, 
As  wide,  as  terrible,  and  yet  sometimes 
As  calm  and  beautiful.    The  light  of  heaven 
Smiles  on  it,  and  'tis  decked  with  every  hue 
Of  glory  and  of  joy.    Anon,  dark  clouds 
Arise,  contending  winds  of  fate  go  forth, 
And  Hope  sits  weeping  o'er  a  general  Avreck. 


XXX  YII. 

TRANSLATION  OF  PLAIN  INTO  FIGUEATIVE  LANGUAGE 

The  following  Examples  present  instances  of  plain  lan- 
guage converted  into  figurative.  This  exercise  will  require 
a  greater  effort  of  imagination  than  the  last ;  but  the  difficulty 
of  the  task  must  not  prevent  an  attempt  at  its  execution. 

Exam'ples.  * 

Plain.  It  was  evening,  and  the  sun  slowly  went  down. 
Figurative.  'T  was  eve:  —  upon  his  chariot  throne 

The  sun  sank  Lingering  in  the  west. 
Plain.    Showery  April. 
Figurative.  Tear-dropping  April. 


*  For  an  example  showing  the  difference  in  the  vivacitv  of  style  in  plaiu 
and  hgm-atjve  language,  see  note  on  pages  IIS  and  119. 


116  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

Plain.  The  winds  made  the  large  trees  bend. 
Figurative.  The  giant  trees  leaned  back  from  the  encoun 
terinsr  breeze.  ^  „  . 

Plain.  The  thunder  is  echoed  from  the  tops  of  the  moun 

^^^Fiqurative.  From  peak  to  peak  leaps  the  live  thunder. 

Plain.  It  is  again  morning,  a  bright,  fair,  and  pleasanl 
mornino- ;  and  the  clouds  have  all  passed  away. 

Figurative.  The  morn  is  up  again,  the  dewy  morn, 

AVith  breath  all  incense,  and  with  cheek  all  bloom, 
Laughing  the  clouds  away  with  playful  scorn. 
Plain.  Oldest  of  Lakes. 

Figurative.  Father  of  Lakes.  ,          -r^  x 

Plain.  Yonder  comes  the  bright  sun,  enhghtemng  the  East. 
Figurative.  But  yonder  comes  the  powerful  Kmg  ot  day, 

Rejoicing  in  the  east. 
Plain.  The  hght  dew  — the  unpleasant  storms. 
Figurative.  The  light-footed  dews:  — the  surly  storms. 
Plain.  The  earth  is  covered  with  snow,  or 

The  snow  covers  the  earth. 
Figurative.  The  earth  hes  buried  in  a  shroud  of  snow. 
Plain.  Much  rain  has  fallen  from  the  clouds  to-day. 
Figurative.  The  clouds  have  dropped  their  garnered  fuhiess 

^^^Plain  The  fair  morning  makes  the  eastern  skies  look  bright. 
Figurative.  The  fair  morning  gilds  the  eastern  skies. 
Plain.  Some  solitary  column  stands  alone,  while  the  others 
have  been  thrown  down. 

Figurative.  Some  solitary  column  mourns  above  its  pros- 
trate brethren.  .  , 

Plain.  If  pleasant  looks  will  not  soothe  your  displeasure, 

I  shall  never  attempt  it  with  tears. 
Figurative.  If  sunshine  will  not  dissolve  thy  snow, 

I  shall  never  attempt  it  with  ram. 
Plain.  The  love  that  is  caused  by  excitement  is  soon  de- 
stroyed by  affliction.  ,  . 

Figurative.  The  love  that  is  ordered  to  bathe  m  wme, 

Would  be  sure  to  take  cold  m  tears. 
Plain.  Authors  of  modern  date  write  for  money,  not  toi 

^^"^Figurative.  'T  is  but  to  snip  his  locks  they  rmodern  authors) 
follow  the  golden-haired  Apollo. 


AIDS  TO   ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


117 


The  conversion  of  plain  into  iSgurative  language  requires 
Vhe  exercise  of  considerable  thought,  and  quickness  of  percep- 
tion in  tracing  analogies.  It  is  recommended  to  the  student 
before  he  attempts  an  exercise  of  this  kind,  to  read  with  at- 
tention portions  of  the  works  of  some  distinguished  poet,  with 
special  reference  to  the  figures  he  employs.  Let  him  analyze 
the  expressions,  and  point  out  what  portions  are  figurative,  in 
what  the  figure  consists,  and  on  what  analogy  the  figure  is 
founded.  An  exercise  of  this  kind  will  bring  the  mind  into 
Wgorous  action,  and  like  all  exercises  having  that  tendency, 
jannot  fail  to  be  highly  beneficial. 


XXXVIII. 

EXILES  OF  METAPHORS. 

The  following  are  the  rules  laid  down  by  Dr.  Blair,  m 
relation  to  metaphors : 

First.  They  must  be  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  subject ;  neither  too 
numerous,  nor  too  gay,  nor  too  elevated  for  it.  We  must  neither  attempt 
to  force  the  subject,  by  the  use  of  them,  into  a  degree  of  elevation  not 
congruous  to  it ;  nor,  on  the  contrary,  suffer  it  to  fall  below  its  proper 
dignity.  Some  metaphors  would  be  beautiful  in  poetry,  which  would  be 
unnatural  in  prose :  some  are  graceful  in  orations,  which  would  be  highly 
improper  in  historical  composition.  Figures  are  the  dress  of  sentiment; 
they  should,  consequently,  be  adapted  to  the  ideas  which  they  are  intended 
to  adorn. 

The  second  rule  respects  the  choice  of  objects  whence  metaphors  are  to 
be  dra'^vn.  The  field  for  figurative  language  is  very  wide.  All  nature 
opens  her  stores,  and  allows  us  to  collect  them  without  restraint.  But 
we  must  beware  of  using  such  allusions  as  raise  in  the  mind  mean,  low, 
or  dirty  ideas.  To  render  a  metaphor  perfect,  it  must  entertain  as  well 
as  enlighten.  The  most  pleasing  metaphors  are  derived  from  the  fre- 
quent occurrences  of  art  and  nature,  or  from  the  civil  transactions  and 
customs  of  mankind. 

In  the  third  place,  a  metaphor  should  be  founded  on  a  resemblance,  or 
analogy,  which  is  clear  and  striking,  not  far  fetched,  nor  difficult  to  be 
discovered.  Harsh  or  forced  metaphors  are  always  displeasing,  because 
they  perplex  the  reader,  and,  instead  of  illustrating  the  thought,  they  ren- 
der it  intricate  and  confused. 

In  the  fourth  place,  we  must  never  jumble  metaphorical  and  plain  Ian- 
page  together ;  that  is,  never  construct  a  period,  so  that  part  of  it  must 
be  understood  metaphorically,  part  literally. 

In  theffth  place,  take  care  not  to  make  two  different  metaphors  meet 
on  the  same  object.  This,  which  is  called  mixed  metaphor,  is  one  of  the 
greatest  abuses  of  the  figure.    Shakspeare's  expression,  for  example. 


118 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


«  To  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles,"  makes  a  most  unnatural  medley, 
and  entirely  confounds  the  imagination.^^  i  , 

In  examining  the  propriety  of  metaphors,  it  is  a  good  rule  to  fonn  a 
Picture  of  them"  and  to  consider  how  the  parts  agree,  and  whai  kind  of 
Lure  the  whole  presents,  Avhen  deUneated  mth  a  pencil. 

Metaphors,  in  the  sixth  place,  should  not  be  crowded  together  on  the 
same  obiect.    Though  eac4i  of  them  be  distinct,  yet  if  they  be  heaped  on 

sued  For,  when  the  resemblance,  which  is  the  foundation  of  the  figure, 
s  long  dwelt  upon,  and  carried  into  all  its  f^^^e  circumstances,  an  a/^- 
m  is  produced,  instead  of  a  metaphor;  the  reader  is  weaned  and  the 
Ssiurse  becomes  obscm-ed.   This  is  termed,  strammg  a  metaphor. 


XXXIX. 

PROSOPOPOEIA,  OR  PERSONIFICATION. 

The  Hteral  meaning  of  prosopopoeia  is,  the  change  of  things  to 
persons.    A  fondness  for  life  and  animated  bemgs  m  prefer- 
Lee  to  inanimate  objeets,  is  one  of  the  first  prmciples  of  lite- 
rary taste.    That  figure,  therefore,  hj  which  life  and  acUon 
are  attributed  to  inanimate  objects,  is  one  of  frequent  occur- 
rence among  the  best  writers  of  prose  and  of  poetry,    lo  po- 
etical writeS,  especially,  it  is  of  the  greatest  consequence  as 
constituting  the  very  life  and  soul,  as  it  were,  of  their 
bers.    This  will  easily  be  seen  by  the  followmg  example . 
"  The  brilliant  sun  is  rising  in  the  east." 
How  tame  and  spiritless  is  this  line,  compared  with  the  manner  in 
which  the  same  idea  is  expressed  by  the  poet,  thus 

"But  yonder  comes  the  powerful  King  of  Day, 
Reioicing  in  the  east."  t 


*  Mr.  Steele,  in  :\I-r'''i^J^rt%''!uZfSZ'  fhttTw^ 
eaUte?eSX=oS^^^ 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


119 


There  are  three  different  degrees  of  this  figure,  says  Dr. 
Blair,  which  it  is  requisite  to  distinguish  in  order  to  determine 
the  propriety  of  its  use. 

The  first  is,  when  some  of  the  2iroperties  of  living  creatures  are  as 
cribed  to  inanimate  objects  ;  the  second,  when. these  inanimate  objects  are 
described  as  acting  like  such  as  have  life ;  and  the  third,  when  they  are  ex- 
hibited as  speaking  to  us,  or  as  listening. 

The  fii'st  and  lowest  degree  of  this  figure,  which  consists  in  ascribing  to 
inanimate  objects  some  of  the  qualities  of  living  creatures^  raises  the  style  so 
little,  that  the  humblest  discourse  admits  it  without  any  force.  Thus,  a 
raging  storm,  a  deceitful  disease,  a  cruel  disaster  —  are  familiar  expres- 
sions. This,  indeed,  is  so  obscure  a  degree  of  personification,  that  it 
might,  perhaps,  be  properly  classed  with  simple  metaphors,  which  almost 
escape  our  observation. 

The  second  degree  of  this  figure  is,  when  we  represent  inanimate  objects 
as  acting  like  those  that  have  life.  Here  we  rise  a  step  higher,  and  the 
personification  becomes  sensible.  According  to  the  nature  of  the  action 
which  we  ascribe  to  those  inanimate  objects,  and  to  the  particularity  with 
which  we  describe  it,  is  the  strength  of  the  figure.  When  pursued  to  a  con- 
siderable length,  it  belongs  only  to  studied  harangues ;  when  slightly 
touched,  it  may  be  admitted  into  less  elevated  compositions. 


the  student  may^  duly  appreciate  the  skill  of  the  poet,  and  the  magnificcnc© 
of  the  design,  it  is  first  presented  in  plain  language  : 

"  Every  thing  that  grows  depends  on  the  light  and  heat  of  the  sun,  as  it 
is  passing  along  the  ecliptic.  All  mankind  depend  upon  it  for  their  daily 
subsistence.  The  seasons,  the  hours,  the  wind  and  the  rain,  the  dew  and 
the  storm,  influenced  as  they  are  by  the  sun,  are  instrumental  in  producing 
herbs,  fruits,  and  flowers,  during  the  whole  year." 

From  such  a  tame  and  Hfeless  recital,  the  poet  has  formed  th*  following 
magnificent  picture,  which  he  holds  up  to  the  sun,  under  the  sumo  (sea 
Ouomatopoeia)  of  "  Parent  of  Seasons :  " 

*'  The  vegetable  world  is  also  thine 
Parent  of  Seasons  !  who  the  pomp  precede. 
That  waits  thy  throne,  as  through  thy  vast  domain^ 
Annual,  along  the  bright  ecliptic  road, 
In  world-rejoicing  state,  it  moves  sublime. 
Meantime  the  expecting  nations,  circled  gay, 
With  all  the  various  tribes  of  foodful  earth, 
Implore  thy  bounty,  or  send  grateful  up 
A_ common  hymn ;  while,  round  thy  beaming  car, 
High  seen,  the  Seasons  lead,  in  sprightly  dance 
Harmonious  knit,  the  rosy-fingered  Hours, 
The  Zephyrs  floating  loose,  the  timely  Pains, 
Of  bloom  ethereal,  the  light-footed  Dews, 
And,  softened  into  joy,  the  surly  Storms. 
These,  in  successive  turn,  with  lavish  hand. 
Shower  every  beauty,  every  fragrance  shower, 
Herbs,  flowers,  and  fruits ;  till,  kindling  at  thy  touch, 
From  land  to  land  is  flushed  the  vernal  year." 


120  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Example, 

"  The  offended  Law  draws  the  sword  from  its  scabbard,  in  vengeance 
against  the  murderer." 

Here  the  law  is  beautifully  personified,  as  reaching  forth  its  hand  to 
give  us  a  sword  for  putting  a  murderer  to  death. 

In  poetry,  personifications  of  this  kmd  are  extremely  frequent,  and  are, 
indeed,  the  lift  and  soul  of  it.  In  the  descriptions  of  a  poet,  who  has  a 
lively  fancy,  every  thing  is  animated.  Homer,  the  father  of  poetry,  is  re- 
markable for  the  use  of  this  figure.  War,  peace,  darts,  rivers,  every  thmg, 
in  short,  is  olive  in  his  mitings.  The  same  is  true  of  Milton  and  fehak- 
speare.*  .       ■     .      .     ,  . 

The  third  and  highest  degree  of  this  figure  is  when  inanimate  objects 
are  represented,  not  only  as  feeling  and  acting,  but  os  speaking  to  us,  or 
listening  when  we  address  them.  This  is  the  boldest  of  all  rhetorical  figures  • 
it  is  the  stvle  of  strong  passion  only,  and  therefore  should  never  be  at- 
tempted, except  when  the  mind  is  considerably  heated  and  agitated. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  this  kind: 

Must  I  leave  thee.  Paradise  ?  thus  leave 
Thee,  native  soil,  these  happy  walks  and  shades, 
Eit  haunts  of  gods !  where  I  had  hoped  to  spend, 
Quiet,  though  sad,  the  respite  of  that  day 
That  must  be  mortal  to  us  both. 

It  is  to  be  remarked,  with  regard  to  this  degree  of  personification,  j^rsf, 
that  it  should  never  be  attempted  unless  when  prompted  by  strong  feel- 
ing and  should  never  be  continued  when  the  feeling  begins  to  subside.  ^ 

Secondly.  That  an  object  that  has  not  some  dignity  in  itself,  or  which  \s 
incapable  of  making  a  proper  figure  in  the  elevation  to  which  we  raise  it, 
should  never  be  personified.  Thus,  to  address  the  body  of  a  fnend  is  not 
at  all  unnatural;  but  to  address  the  several  parts  of  the  body  or  the 
clothes  which  he  wore,  is  not  compatible  with  the  dignity  of  grave 
composition.  .  ^  i    *  * 

Examples  of  the  three  degrees  of  personification  for  the  student  to 
designate : 

With  other  ministrations,  thou,  oh  Nature, 
Healest  thy  wandering  and  distempered  child. 

Uncomforted  and  friendless  solitude. 

Come,  funeral  flower !  thou  shalt  form  my  nosegay  now. 

*  No  personification  is  more  striking,  or  introduced  on  a  more  prcper 
occasion,  than  the  foUowing  of  Milton,  upon  Eve's  eatmg  the  forbidden 
Jruit: 

*'  So  saying,  her  rash  hand,  in  evil  hour, 
"  Forth  reaching  to  the  frait,  she  plucked,  she  ate  I 
"  Earth  felt  the  wound  ;  and  nature,  from  her  seat, 
"  Sighing,  through  all  her  works,  gave  signs  of  WOO, 
"  That  aU  was  lost  " 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  121 

Sweet  scented  flower,  who 't  wont  to  bloom 
Un  Januaiy's  front  severe. 

The  meek-eyed  Morn  appears,  mother  of  dews. 

Young  Day  pours  in  apace. 

And  opens  all  the  dawny  prospect  wide. 

Oh !  there  is  a  charm,  that  morning  has, 

That  gives  the  brow  of  age  a  smack  of  youth 

And  makes  the  lip  of  youth  breathe  perfumes  exquisifce. 

The  breath  of  night 's  destructive  to  the  hue 
Of  every  flower  that  blows. 

No  arni,  in  the  day  of  the  conflict  could  wound  him 
J. hough  war  launched  his  thunder  in  fury  to  kill.  ' 

There  is  no  mahce  in  this  burning  coal ; 

The  breath  of  heaven  hath  blown  its  spirit  out. 

And  strowed  repentant  ashes  on  his  head. 

Pale  Autumn  spreads  o'er  him  the  leaves  of  the  forest. 
The  fays  of  the  wild  chant  the  dirge  of  his  rest, 
And  thou,  httle  brook,  still  the  sleeper  deplorest 
And  moistenest  the  heath-bell  that  weeps  on  his  breast 

No  might  nor  greatness  in  mortality 

Can  censure  'scape ;  back-wounding  calumny 

1  he  whitest  virtue  strikes. 

I  have  marked 
A  thousand  blushing  apparitions  start 
Into  her  face  ;  a  thousand  innocent  shames 
In  angel  whiteness  bear  away  these  blushes. 

All  delights  are  vain ;  but  that  most  vain 
Which,  with  pain  purchased,  doth  inherit  pain. 

Let  fame,  that  all  hunt  after  in  their  lives 
Live  registered  upon  our  broken  tombs,  ' 
And  then  grace  us  in  the  disgrace  of  death : 
When,  spite  of  cormorant  devouring  time, 
I  he  endeavor  of  this  present  breath  may  bay 
I  hat  honor,  which  shall  'bate  his  scythe's  keen  edee 
And  make  us  heks  of  all  eternity.*  '  * 


^^^^d"^"^?"™®  °^  poetry  will  furnish  exercises  of  this  kind  to  the  shid^^pt 
containers,  L  rl'^eI:ni:r::%l:L^'"''^°'  "  'f""''" 


11 


122 


j^Q  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOK 


XL. 

SIMILE,  OB  COMPAEISON.^ 


A  sMe  is  the  likening  of  Xd^ 
to  another  subject  having  .fj^^^^^'^^^  '^^^o  °'    In  a  strict 
the  description  more  f°™^  «  ^"'^     ^'hkh  the  subject  may 
sense,  it  ditfers  from  ;"j;;ttori^ 
have  an  obvious  l.^^l^^^Zu  they  are  presented 

which  that  thought  IS  con^^y^^;^  , ,  .    fo„„a  something  new 
In  all_  '^or-^-'^Z^^Z:^f^A^^^^  Consequent- 
r;  :LTrs!'n:v:fbe                          t^ngs  of  the  same 
species.  +   -  

can  be  no  o:ood  simde.  .  ,  pnTnnarison  is,  that  the  former  has 

t  The  aistinction  between  simile  and  ^  '^^'''^.^l 
r^fprpnce  to  the  quality ;  the  latter  to  the  j^j^""^  ,  u  Hannibal  huns;  hke 
'^e  'Slless;  sfmilitlle  is  bet-e-|««^,an_d  ^^ 

atempest  on  the  declivities  of  the  Alps  J  ^  Homer,  as  much 
u  'JhTrublimity  of  the  Scriptural  prop^^  comparison.  -  X 

as  thunder  is  louder  than  a  whisper  ^ 

Q.  Lec.  9.  .  ,    considered  as  differing  in  form  only 

The  simile,  or  comparison,  maj  be  consi  i^^  comparison,  which 

frim  a  Metaphor  the  resemblance  ^^'"^S  bounded  on  actua^  resem- 

in  the  metaphor  is  only  implied    f  ach  may  o^^^       ^^^^^  ^^^^ 
blance  or  on  analogy.    Metaphor  and  com^^^^^^^^^^        ^^^^  ^^^^^^     d  un- 
the  more  frequent  and  the  more  f'^mg,  because  impressed  and 

like  in  themselves  any  two  objects  are,  tj^f  more  is  t  intimately 
cmftified  by  the  perception  of  some  poi^^^^.^f  the  literal  mean- 

Knnected  with  ^Simile  and  Comparison  is  the  F^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  the  word 

?n?  of  which  s,  -  somethng  inserted  m  ^^^^^^^^^^^ '^^J^f  the  ^ve,  and  another 
Slsfd'to  express    a  V^XT^o^^^^f^  ^"^^"'^  Vm^m 

null  ties,  is  also  an  emblem.    Thus  a  looking  gia  ^  ^.^^ 


AIDS  TO  ENGLiSH  COMPOSITION. 


123 


All  comparisons,  says  Dr.  Blair,  may  be  reduced  under  two 
heads,  explaining,  and  embellishing.  But  embellishing  com- 
parisons are  those  which  most  frequently  occur. 

Resemblance,  it  has  been  observed,  is  the  foundation  of  this  figure 
but  resemblance  must  not  be  taken  in  too  strict  a  sense  for  actual  sTmili* 
tude.  Two  objects  may  raise  a  train  of  concordant  ideas  in  the  mind, 
thoug-h  they  resemble  each  other,  strictly  speaking,  in  nothing.  For  ex- 
ample, to  describe  the  nature  of  soft  and  melancholy  music,  Ossian  says : 

"  The  music  of  Carryl,  like  the  memory  of  joys  that  are  past,  was  pl^s 
ant  and  mournful  to  the  soul," 

This  is  happy  and  delicate ;  yet  no  kind  of  music  bears  any  actual 
resemblance  to  the  memory  of  past  joys. 

Comparisons  should  not  be  introduced  on  all  occasions.  As  thet  are 
the  language  of  imagination,  rather  than  of  passion,  an  author  can 
hardly  commit  a  greater  fault,  than  in  the  midst  of  passion  or  strong 
feelmg  to  introduce  a  simile.  Even  in  poetry  it  should  be  employed  with 
moderation ;  but  in  prose  much  more  so. 

The  following  rules  are  laid  dovm  bv  Dr.  Blah-  in  the  use  of  com- 
parisons : 

In  the /rs?,  they  must  not  be  drawn  from  things  which  have  too  near  and 
obvious  a  resemblance  of  the  object  with  which  thev  are  compared ;  for 
^he  pleasure  which  we  receive  from  the  act  of  comparing  arises  from  the 
discovery  of  Hkenesses  among  things  of  different  species  where  we  should 
not,  at  first  sight  expect,  a  resemblance. 

In  the  second  place,  as  comparisons  ought  not  to  be  founded  on  likenesses 
too  obvious,  much  less  ought  they  to  be  founded  on  those  which  are  too 
taint  and  distant.  These,  instead  of  assisting,  strain  the  fancy  to  compre 
hend  them,  and  throw  no  light  upon  the  subject 

In  the  third  place,  the  object  from  which  a  comparison  is  drawn  ought 
never  to  be  an  unknown  object,  nor  one  of  which  few  people  can  have  a 
clear  idea.  Therefore  similes  founded  on  philosophical  discoveries,  or  on 
any  thing  with  which  persons  of  a  particular  trade  only,  or  a  particular 
profession,  are  acquainted,  produce  not  their  proper  effect.  They  should  be 
drawn  from  those  illustrious  and  noted  objects,  which  most  readers  have 
either  seen,  or  can  strongly  conceive. 

In  the  fourth  place,  in  compositions  of  a  serious  or  elevated  kind,  similes 
should  not  be  drawn  from  low  or  mean  objects.  These  degrade  and  vilify  • 
whereas  similes  are  generally  intended  to  embellish  and  dignify.  There- 
fore, except  in  burlesque  writings,  or  where  an  object  is  meant  to  be  de- 
graded, mean  ideas  should  never  be  presented. 

motto,  "  My  nourishment  is  my  bane,"  is  an  emblem  of  the  improper  use 
we  are  too  apt  to  make  of  things,  when  either  by  using  them  improperly,  or 
too  treely  we  subvert  the  design  for  which  they  were  at  first  intended. 
"  The  oil  thus  feeds,  thus  quenches  flame  : 
So  love  gives  honor;  —  love  gives  shame." 

Qiiarles^  Book  of  Emblems, 
Emblems  are  frequently  the  foundations  of  both  Simile  and  Comparison. 
Analogy  u  the  foundation  of  the  three. 


124 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOW. 


Examples, 

1  Wit  and  humor  are  like  those  volatile  essences,  which, 
being  too  delicate  to  bear  the  open  air,  evaporate  ahnost  a. 
soon  as  they  are  exposed  to  it. 

2  Like  birds  whose  beauties  languish,  half  concealed. 
Till  mounted  on  the  wing  their  glossy  plumes 
Expanded,  shine  with  azure,  green,  and  gold, 
How  blessings  brighten  as  they  take  their  flight ! 

8  And  in  the  smoke  the  pennons  flew, 

As  in  the  storm  the  white  sea-mew. 

4.       Then  marked  they  dashing  broad  and  far 
The  broken  billows  of  the  war. 
And  plumed  crests  of  chieftains  brave, 
Floating  like  foam  upon  the  wave. 

5  She  never  told  her  love, 

'     But  let  concealment,  like  a  worm  m  the 

Feed  on  her  damask  cheek.    She  pmed  m  thought, 
And  with  a  green  and  yellow  melancholy 
She  sat,  like  Patience  on  a  monument, 
Smiling  at  Grief. 

f.  Oh  Night, 

And  Storm  and  Darkness,  ye  are  wondrous  strong, 
Yet  lovely  in  your  strength  as  is  the  hght 
Of  a  dark  eye  in  woman. 

7  This  quiet  sail  is  as  a  noiseless  wing 

To  waft  me  from  distraction  ;  once  I  loved 

Torn  ocean's  roar ;  but  thy  soft  murmuring 

Sounds  sweet  as  if  a  sister's  voice  reproved 

That  I  with  stern  delights  should  e'er  have  been  so  moved. 

8  They  are  the  native  courtesies  of  a  feeling  mind, 
^winl  themTelves  amid  stern  virtues  and  masculine  energies 
like  gkams  of  light  on  pomts  of  rocks. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


125 


9.  I  never  tempted  her  with  word  too  large ; 
But  as  a  brother  to  a  sister  showed 
Basliful  sincerity  and  comely  love. 

10.  Curses,  like  chickens,  always  come  home  to  roost. 

11.  As  no  roads  are  so  rough  as  those  which  have  just 
been  mended,  so  no  sinners  are  so  intolerant  as  those  that  have 
just  turned  saints. 

12.  True  friendship  is  like  sound  health,  the  value  of  it 
is  seldom  known  until  it  is  lost. 

Exercises. 

Let  the  student  compare  a  man  of  integrity  with  a  rock ; 
and  show  the  circumstances  of  resemblance. 
Compare  Life,  with  the  Ocean. 
"       Adversity,  with  a  storm. 
"       Affluence,  with  a  fountain. 
"       the  life  of  man  with  the  leaves  on  the  tree. 
"       Death  with  the  falling  of  the  leaf. 
"       Youth,  with  Spring. 
"       Manhood,  with  Summer. 
"       Old  age,  with  Autumn. 
"       Death,  with  Winter. 

"       The  reflection  of  hght  from  the  water,  with  tho 

sparkling  of  the  diamond. 
"       Wit  and  Humor  with  a  volatile  essence. 
"       The  minds  of  the  aged,  with  the  tombs  which 

they  are  approaching. 
"       The  style  of  two  writers ;  one  with  a  convex 

mirror,  scattering  the  light,  —  the  other  with 

the  concave  speculum,  concentrating  the  rays 

to  a  focus. 

Departing  blessings  to  the  flight  of  birds. 


XLL 

ANTITHESIS. 

Antithesis  is  the  counterpart  of  comparison,  and  is  found-ed 
on  the  contrast  or  opposition  of  two  **bjects.    By  contrast, 
11* 


126 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


objects  opposed  to  eacb  other  appear  in  a  stronger  light,  and 
their  peculiar  beauties  or  defects  appear  in  bold  relief. 

Antitheses,  like  comparisons,  must  be  subjected  to  some  rules.  They 
mu<;t  take  place  between  things  of  the  same  species.  Substantives,  attri 
bute«  qualities,  faculties  of  the  same  kind,  must  be  set  m  opposition.  To 
constitute  an  amithesis  between  a  man  and  a  Uon,  virtue  and  hunger, 
CcTure  and  color,  would  be  to  form  a  contrast  where  there  is  no  opposi- 
tion But  to  contrast  one  man  -with  another,  vu-tues  with  virtues,  tg- 
ures  with  figures,  is  pertinent  and  proper,  because  in  these  cases  there 
must  be  striking  opposition.  .    ,     -,  t       •  * 

Antithesis  makes  the  most  brilliant  appearance  m  the  delineation  ot 
characters,  particularlv  in  histoiT-  The  historian,  in  the  performance  of 
this  delicate  part  of  his  task  has  a  good  opportunity  for  displaying  his 
di^^cernment  and  knowledge  of  human  nature ;  and  of  distinguishing  those 
nice  shades  bv  which  virtues  and  vices  run  into  one  another.  It  is  by 
such  colors  only  that  a  character  can  be  strongly  painted,  and  antithesis 
is  nere^sarv  to  denote  those  distinctions.  _ 

Antithesis,  also,  bv  placing  subjects  in  contrast,  prompts  the  judge- 
ment •  and  is  therefore  a  verv'common  figure  in  argumentative  wnting. 

Antithesis  is  also  used  with  great  advantage  in  descriD;:ions  or  repre- 
sentations of  the  power  and  extent  of  a  quahty,  as  foUows  . 

"I  can  command  the  lightnings,  —  and  am  dust." 
Ac-ain  In  the  description  of  the  power  of  the  steam-engine,  a  late 
miter  ^avs:  "  The  trunk  of  an  elephant,  that  can  pick  up  a  pm  or  rend 
an  oak  is  as  nothing  to  it.  It  can  engi-ave  a  seal  and  crush  masses  of 
obdurate  metal  before  it,  —  draw  out,  without  breaking,  a  thread  as  fine 
as  gossamer,  and  lift  up  a  ship  of  war  like  a  bauble  in  the  air.  It  can 
embroider  musUn  and  forge  anchors,  —  cut  steel  into  nbands,  and  impel 
loaded  vessels  against  the  fury  of  the  winds  and  waves.'  * 

Examples. 

1.    Behold  my  servants  shall  eat,  but  ye  shall  be  hungry ; 
behold  my  servants  shall  drink,  but  ye  shall  be  thirsty  ;  behold 
-  my  servants  shall  rejoice,  but  ye  shall  be  ashamed. 

2.    Beligion  and  Superstition,  contrasted. 

Eeli^on  is  the  offspring  of  Truth  and  Love,  and  the  parent 
of  Benevolence,  Hope  and  Joy.    Superstition  is  the  child  of 


*  The  author  of  Lacon  very  justly  remarks:  "To  extirpate  antithesis 
from  literature  altogether,  would  be  to  destroy  at  one  stroke  about  eight 
tenths  of  all  the  wit,  ancient  and  modem,  now  existing  m  the  world.  It  is 
a  figure  capable  not  only  of  the  greatest  ^^-it,  but  sometimes  of  the  greatest 
beautv,  and  sometimes  of  the  greatest  sublijaity." 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


127 


Discontent,  and  her  children  are  Fear  and  Sorrow.  The 
former  invites  us  to  the  moderate  enjoyment  of  the  world, 
and  all  its  tranquil  and  rational  pleasures.  The  latter  teaches 
us  only  that  man  was  born  to  mourn  and  to  be  wretched. 
The  former  invites  us  to  the  contemplation  of  the  various 
beauties  of  the  globe,  which  heaven  has  destined  for  the  seat 
of  the  human  race  ;  and  proves  to  us  that  a  world  so  exquis- 
itely framed  could  not  be  meant  for  the  abode  of  misery  and 
pain.  The  latter  exhorts  us  to  retire  from  the  world,  to  fly 
from  the  enchantments  of  social  delight,  and  to  consecrate  the 
hours  to  solitary  lamentation.  The  former  teaches  us  that  to 
enjoy  the  blessings  sent  by  our  benevolent  Creator  is  virtue 
and  obedience.  The  latter  informs  us  that  every  enjoyment 
is  f>,n  offence  to  the  Deity,  who  is  to  be  worshipped  only  by 
th«  mortification  of  every  sense  of  pleasure,  and  the  everlasting 
o#*crcise  of  sighs  and  tears. 

d.    Though  deep,  yet  clear,  though  gentle ,  yet  not  dull. 
Strong  without  rage,  without  o'erflowing,  full. 

4.  Knowledge  and  Wisdom,  far  from  being  one, 
Have  oft-times  no  connection.    Knowledge  dwells 
In  heads  replete  with  thoughts  of  other  men ; 
Wisdom  in  minds  attentive  to  their  own. 
Knowledge,  a  rude,  unprofitable  mass, 

The  mere  materials  with  which  Wisdom  builds, 
Till  smoothed  and  squared,  and  fitted  to  its  place, 
Does  but  encumber  whom  it  seems  to  enrich. 
Knowledge  is  proud  that  he  has  learned  so  much; 
Wisdom  is  humble  that  he  knows  no  more. 

5.  An  upright  minister  asks  what  recommends  a  man  ;  a 
lorrupt  minister  asks  who  recommends  him. 

6.  When  the  million  appUud,  you  ask  what  harm  you 
have  done;  when  they  censure  you,  what  good. 

7.  Contemporaries  appreciate  the  man  rather  than  the 
merit ;  but  posterity  will  regard  the  merit  rather  tnan  the  man. 

.    8.    Contrasted  faults  through  all  his  manners  reign, 

Though  poor,  luxurious ;  though  submissive,  vain, 
Though  grave,  yet  trifling ;  zealous,  yet  untrue, 
And  e'en  in  penance  planning  sins  anew. 


128  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

The  student  may  now  write  a  list  of  subjects  in  pairs, 
which  can  be  presented  in  antithesis,  and  present  one  or 
more  of  them  accordingly. 


XLII. 
PARALLEL. 

A  parallel,  considered  as  a  composition,  is  a  kind  of  compar- 
ison made  to  exhibit  the  resemblance  between  two  characters 
or  writings,  to  show  their  conformity  as  it  is  continued  through 
many  particulars,  or  in  essential  points.  The  parallel  is 
sometimes  diversified  by  antitheses,  to  show  in  a  strong  light 
the  points  of  individual  distinction. 

Examjple  1st. 

PARALLEL  BETWEEN"  POPE  AND  DRYDEN. 

Pope  professed  to  have  learned  his  poetry  from  Drj-den,  whom,  when- 
ever an  opportunity  was  presented,  he  praised  through  his  whole  hfe 
with  unvaried  liberality  5  and  perhaps  his  character  may  receive  some 
illustration  if  he  be  compared  with  his  master. 

Inteo-rity  of  understanding,  and  nicety  of  discernment,  were  not  allotted 
in  a  less  proportion  to  Dryden  than  to  Pope.  The  rectitude  of  Dry  den  s 
mind  was  sufficiently  shown  by  the  dismission  of  his  poetical  prejudices, 
and  the  rejection  of  unnatural  thoughts  and  rugged  numbers.  But  Dry- 
den never  desired  to  apply  all  the  judgment  that  he  had.  He  mote,  and 
professed  to  write,  merely  for  the  people  5  and  when  he  pleased  others  he 
contented  himself.  He  spent  no  time  in  struggles  to  rouse  latent  powers ; 
he  never  attempted  to  make  that  better  which  was  already  good,  nor 
often  to  mend  what  he  must  have  known  to  be  faulty.  He  wrote,  as  he 
tells  us,  with  very  little  consideratiofa ;  when  occasion  or  necessity  called 
upon  him,  he  poured  out  what  the  present  moment  happened  to  supply 
and  when  once  it  had  passed  the  press,  ejected  it  from  his  mmd ;  for, 
when  he  had  no  pecuniary  interest,  he  had  no  further  solicitude. 

Pope  was  not  content  to  satisfy;  he  desired  to  excel,  and  therefore  al- 
ways endeavored  to  do  his  best  fhe  did  not  court  the  candor,  but  dared 
the"  judgment  of  his  reader,  and,  expecting  no  indulgence  from  others,  he 
6howed"nonc  to  himself  He  examined  lines  and  words  with  minute  and 
punctilious  obsen^ation,  and  retouched  every  part  with  indefatigable  dili- 
gence, tUl  he  had  left  nothing  to  be  forgiven.  For  this  reason  he  kept 
his  pieces  very  long  in  his  hands,  while  he  considered  and  reconsidered 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


129 


them.  The  only  poems  which  can  be  supposed  to  have  been  written  with 
such  regard  to  the  times  as  might  hasten  their  publication,  were  the  two 
oatires  of  Thirty-eight ;  of  which  Dodsley  told  me,  that  they  were  brought 
to  him  by  the  author,  that  they  might  be  fairly  copied.  "Every  line," 
said  he,  "  was  then  wril^n  twice  over ;  I  gave  him  a  clean  transcript, 
which  he  sent  some  time  afterwards  to  me  for  the  press,  with  every  line 
\vritten  twice  over  a  second  time." 

His  declaration,  that  his  care  for  his  works  ceased  at  their  publication, 
was  not  strictly  true.  His  parental  attention  never  abandoned  them, 
what  he  found  amiss  in  the  first  edition,  he  silently  corrected  in  those 
that  followed.  He  appears  to  have  revised  the  Iliad,  and  freed  it  fi-cm 
some  of  its  imperfections ;  and  the  Essay  on  Criticism  received  many  im- 
provements after  its  first  appearance.  It  will  seldom  be  found  that  he 
altered  without  adding  clearness,  elegance,  or  vigor.  Pope  had  perhaps 
the  judgment  of  Dryden;  but  Dryden  certainly  wanted  the  diligence  of 
Pope. 

In  acquired  knowledge,  the  superiority  must  be  allowed  to  Dryden, 
whose  education  was  more  scholastic,  and  who,  before  he  became  an  au- 
thor, had  been  allowed  more  time  for  study,  with  better  means  of  infor- 
mation. _  His  mind  has  a  larger  range,  and  he  collects  his  images  and 
illustrations  from  a  more  extensive  circumference  of  science.  Dryden 
knew  more  of  man  in  his  general  nature,  and  Pope  in  his  local  manners. 
The  notions  of  Dryden  were  formed  by  comprehensive  speculation,  and 
vhose  of  Pope  by  minute  attention.  There  is  more  dignity  in  the 
knowledge  of  Dryden,  and  more  certainty  in  that  of  Pope.  Poetry  was 
not  the  sole  praise  of  either,  for  both  excelled  likewise  in  prose;  butPope 
did  not  borrow  his  prose  from  his  predecessor.  The  style  of  Dryden  is 
capricious  and  varied ;  that  of  Pope  is  cautious  and  unifonn.  Dryden 
obeys  the  motions  of  his  own  mind.  Pope  constrains  his  mind  to  his  own 
mles  of  composition.  Dryden  is  sometimes  vehement  and  rapid,  Pope 
is  always  smooth,  uniform,  and  gentle.  Diyden's  page  is  a  natural  field, 
rising  into  inequalities,  and  diversified  by  the  varied  exuberance  of  abun- 
dant vegetation ;  Pope's  is  a  velvet  lav/n,  shaven  by  the  scythe,  and 
levelled  by  the  roller. 

Of  genius,  that  power  which  constitutes  a  poet;  that  quality  without 
which  judgment  is  cold,  and  knowledge  is  inert ;  that  energy  Avhich  col- 
lects, combines,  amplifies,  and  animates ;  the  superiority  must,  with  some 
hesitation,  be  allowed  to  Dryden.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred,  that  of  this 
poetical  vigor  Pope  had  only  a  little,  because  Diyden  had  more ;  for 
every  other  writer,  since  Milton,  must  give  place  to  Pope;  and  even  of 
Dryden  it  must  be  said,  that  if  he  has  brighter  paragraphs,  he  has  not 
better  poems.  Dryden's  performances  were  always  hasty,  either  ex(  ited 
by  some  external  occasion,  or  extorted  by  domestic  necessity  ;  he  com- 
posed without  consideration,  and  published  without  coiTCCtion.  What 
his  mind  could  supply  at  call,  or  gather  in  one  excursion,  Avas  all  that  he 
sought,  and  all  that  he  gave.  The  dilatory  caution  of  Pope  enabled  him 
to  condense  his  sentiments,  to  multiply  his  images,  and  to  accumulate  all 
that  study  might  produce,  or  chance  raight  supply.  If  the  flights  of  Dry. 
den,  therefore,  are  higher,  Pope  continues  longer  on  the  wing.  If  of 
Dryden's  fij-e  the  blaze  is  brighter,  of  Pope's  the  heat  is  more  regular  an^ 
constant.  Dryden  often  surpasses  expectation,  and  Pope  never  falls  be 
low  it.  Dryden  is  read  with  freauent  astonishment,  and  Pope  with 
l?erpetual  delight. 


ISO  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

TTik  parallel  will,  I  hope,  where  it  is  well  considered,  be  found  just 
and  If'  the  reader  should  suspect  me,  as  I  suspect  myself,  of  some  partial 
fondness  for  the  memory  of  Dryden,  let  him  not  too  hastily  ^'ondemn  mo 
for  meditation  and  inquiry  may,  perhaps,  show  him  the  reasonableness  of 
my  determination. 

Example  2c?. 

PARALLEL  BETWEEN  JAY  AND  HAMILTON. 

It  were,  indeed,  a  bold  task  to  venture  to  draw  into  comparison  the  rela 
7e  merits  of  Jay  and  Hamilton  on  the  fame  and  fortunes  of  their  country, 
S>1   tasL  -  and  yet,  bold  as  it  is,  we  feel  impelled  at  least  to  venture 
on  opening;  it.    They  were  undoubtedly         nobde  fratmm^^n^^  ye  not 
Z^lrot^..  -pals  sed  impares,-  \^e,  but  I^.P^i"?^^^'  l^^^^ 

ment  equal,  for  who  would  venture  therein  to  f.^^S^to  either  ^e  su^^^^^ 
ority?  vet  was  that  attachment,  though  equal  m  degi'ee,  f^^  d  ^f^^^Jf 
kind  with  Hamilton  it  was  a  sentiment,  with  Jay  a  F■"«lP^^.V^^^th  Ham^^^ 
ton,  ;nthusiastic  passion,  with  Jay,  duty  as  well  ^^^^^^^^J  "^^^ 
natriotism  was  the  paramount  law,  with  Jay,  a  law  sub  grojvion  Lege. 
Kei  woulTLv^^  through  fire  and  water  to  do  his  country  service, 
m  d  laid  downTeelf  his  life  fo?her  safety,  Hamilton  with  the  roused  cour 
aS-eof  alion  Jay  with  the  calm  fearlessness  of  a  man ;  or,  rather  Hamil 
S.fcourage  would  have  been  that  of  a  soldier,  Jay's,  that  of  a  Christian. 
Of  the  latter  it  might  be  truly  said : 

"  Conscience  made  him  firm, 
That  boon  companion,  who  her  strong  breastplate 
Buckles  on  him,  that  fears  no  guilt  withm, 
And  bids  him  on,  and  fear  not. " 

In  intellectual  power,  in  depth,  and  grasp,  and  ^^^rsatility  of  mind^  as  well 
as  in  all  the  splendid  and  brilhant  P^rts  which  captivate  and  adorn 
ton  was  greatly,  not  to  say  immeasurab  y,  Jay's  superior    In  the  calm  and 
deener  wisdom  of  practical  dutv,  in  the  government  of  others  and_  still 
S  nSe  governtn^t  of  himself,  in  seeing  clearly  the  right,  and  follomng  it 
whithersoever  it  led  firmly,  patiently,  self-denymgly,  Jay  was  agam  greatly 
if  not  immeasurably,  Hamilton's  superior.  In  ^^^'^^"^^^^^-^^l.^^}^^^ 
tnn'c?  mind  had  in  i^t  more  of  "  constructive  "  power,  Jay  s  ot  executive. 
HamiS  hSd  GENixis,  Jay  had  wisbom    We  would  have 
to  plan  a  government,  and  Jay  to  carry  i  °"  'iie\ener 

of  law  we  would  have  Hamilton  for  our  advocate,  if  our  cause  were  gener 
ous,  and  Jay  for  judge,  if  our  cause  were  just. 

The  fame  of  Hamiltou,  like  his  parts,  deem  to  shme  br.gh  e^^^  far^ 
ther  than  Jay's,  but  we  are  not  sure  that  it  should  be  so,  or  rather  ^^  e  aie 
quile  sure  that  it  should  not.  For,  when  we  come  to  examine  and  compare 
their  relative  course,  and  its  bearing  on  the  country  and  its  fortunes  the 
reputation  of  Hamilton  we  find  to  go  as  far  beyond  his  practical  share  m^^^^ 
as  Jay's  falls  short  of  his.  Hamilton's  civil  official  life  a  b  ^ef  and 
single,  though  brilliant  one.  Jay's  numbered  years  of  a  generat^^^^^  and 
exhausted  every  department  of  diplomatic,  civil,  and  judicial  tiust.  m 
fidelity  t  ?hei7  country,  both  were  pure  to  their  ^^^art  s  core  ;  yet  was 
Hamilton  loved,  perhaps,  more  than  trusted,  and  Jay  trusted,  peihaps,more 

'''luih  were  they,  we  deem,  in  difiering,  if  not  contrasted,  p^^^^^^^^ 
acter    Their  lives,  too,  when  viewed  from  a  distance,  stand  out  in  equaiy 
TniSng  but  much  more  painful  contrast.  ^-p^^^^Z^^i^r^^^^ 
it  a  completeness  of  parts  such  as  a  nicer  critic  demands  tor  the  pertecuoa 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


131 


cf  an  epic  poem,  with  its  beginning  of  promise,  its  heroic  middle,  and  its 
peaceful  end,  and  partnkiiig,  too,  somewhat  of  the  same  cold  stateUness 
noble,  however,  still,  and  glorious,  and  ever  pointing,  as  such  poem  does,  to 
the  stars.  <SVVt  itivr  cui  astra.  The  life  of  Hamilton,  on  the  other  hand, 
broken  and  fragmentary,  begun  in  the  darkness  of  romantic  interest,  nm 
ning  on  into  the  sympathy  of  a  high  passion, ^and  at  length  breaking  oft"  in 
the  midst,  like  some  half-told  tale  of  sorrow,  amid  tears  and  blood,  even  as 
does  the  theme  of  the  tragic  poet.  The  name  of  Hamilton,  therefore,  was  a 
name  to  conjure  with  ;  that  of  Jaj',  tv">  swear  by.  Hamilton  had  his  frailties, 
arising  out  of  passion,  as  tragic  heroes  have.  Jay's  name  was  faultless,  and 
his  course  passionless,  as  becomes  the  epic  leader,  and,  in  point  of  fact,  was, 
■while  living,  a  name  at  which  frailty  blushed,  and  corruption  trembled. 

If  we  ask  whence,  humanly  speaking,  came  such  disparity  of  the  fate  be- 
tween equals,  the  stricter  morals,  the  happier  life,  the  more  peaceful  death, 
to  what  can  we  trace  it  but  to  the  healthful  power  of  rehgion  over  the  heart 
and  conduct  ?  Was  not  this,  we  ask,  the  ruling  secret  ?  Hamilton  was  a 
Christian  in  his  youth,  and  a  penitent  Christian,  we  doubt  not,  on  his  dying 
bed;  but  Jay  was  a  Christian,  so  far  as  man  may  ju;lge,  every  day  and 
hour  of  his  life.  He  had  but  one  rule,  the  gospel  of  Christ;  in  that  he  was 
nurtured,  —  ruled  by  that,  through  grace,  he  lived,  —  resting  on  that,  in 
prayer,  he  died. 

Admitting,  then,  as  we  do,  both  names  to  be  objects  of  our  highest  sym 
pathetic  admiration,  yet,  with  the  name  of  Hamilton,  as  the  master  says  of 
tragedy,  the  lesson  is  given  "with  pity  and  in  fear."  Not  so  with  that  of 
Jay ;  with  him  we  walk  fearless,  as  in  the  steps  of  one  who  was  a  Chais 
TiAN  as  well  as  a  patriot. 


JSxercises. 

A  Parallel  between  the  Old  and  New  Testament. 

„       between  the  writinf^s  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  John. 
„       The  character  of  Napoleon  and  of  Washington. 
„       Lord  Bacon  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 
„        The  Profession  of  the  Law  and  that  of  Divinity. 
„       The  invention  of  the  art  of  printing  with  the  discovery  of 
the  application  of  steam  to  mechanical  purposes. 


XLin. 


ALLEGORY. 

Allegory  *  is  a  species  of  writing,  in  which  one  thing  is  eX" 


*  Dr.  Blair  says,  "An  allegory  is  a  continued  metaphor;  as  it  is  the 
representation  of  one  thing  by  another  that  resembles  it."  And  under  the 
head  of  metaphor  he  says,  "  When  the  resemblance  which  is  the  foundation 
of  this  figure  is  long  dwelt  upon,  and  carried  into  all  its  minute  circum 
tttaaioes,  an  allegory  is  produced  instead  of  a  metaphor.'* 


♦ 


132  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

pressed,  and  another  is  understood.  The  analogy  is  intended 
to  be  so  obvious  that  the  reader  cannot  miss  the  apphcation ; 
but  he  is  left  to  <iraw  the  proper  conclusion  for  his  own  use. 

It  is  for  this  reason,  chiefly  employed  when  a  writer  desires  to  com- 
municate some  important  intelHgcnce  or  advice-,  but  is  not  pennitted,  or 
does  not  wish,  to  deliver  it  in  plain  terms.  It  is  also  used  for  ornament, 
or  to  convey  instruction,  so  as  to  interest  the  imagmation,  and  flatter  the 
understanding,  by  giving  the  reader  the  appearance  of  instructing  himself. 

Allegories  are  of  three  kinds :  first,  those  designed  for  or 
nament ;  secondly,  those  designed  for  mstruction  ;  and,  thirdly, 
those  intended  both  to  adorn  and  instruct.  In  employing  al- 
leo-ories,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  phraseology  be  all  figu- 
rative, and  that  the  attributes  of  the  primary  and  secondary 
object  be  not  confounded  and  interchanged. 

Example  1st.* 

PATIENCE,  AN  ALLEGORY. 

Patience  was  the  child  of  Forbearance  and  Gentleness,  and 
they  Hved  in  the  town  of  Perseverance.  When  very  young, 
she  began  to  exercise  that  virtue  which  was  afterwards 
named  from  her.  She  was  a  very  extraordinary  child,  and 
it  has  ever  been  said  of  her,  that  she  could  work  all  things. 
She  had  an  aunt  called  Adversity,  who  troubled  her^  very 
much,  but,  it  was  observed,  that  the  more  she  was  subjected 
to  the  trials  of  this  relation,  the  more  brightly  the  lustre  of 
her  character  shone  forth ;  for,  while  her  uncle,  Prosperity, 
was  near  her,  she  seemed  to  have  no  opportunity  of  exercis- 
ing her  graces.  She  had  a  grandmother,  (on  her  mothers 
side,)  named  Meekness,  and  she  seemed  to  imbibe  many  of 

*  This  allefforv  was  written  by  one  of  the  pupils  of  the  school  under  the 
charge  of  the  author.  It  is  presented  just  as  it  was  written  by  the  young 
lady;  who,  though  but  "just  in  her  teens,"  has  certainly  sustained  the  hgure 
throughout  in  excellent  "  yteej^m^."  ■,  •       *.  i  v^„« 

As  instances  of  the  allegory,  which  may  he  studied  and  imitated,  may 
be  mentioned,  -  The  Hill  of  Science,"  f ^^he  Journey  of  a  Day^^^ 
Picture  of  Human  Life,"  by  Johnson ;  ''An  Eastern  Nan-ative,  by  Hawks^ 
worth,  entitled,  "No  Life  pleasing  to  God  which  is  not  usefu  to  ^^lan 
-  The  Eightieth  Psalm  of  David ;  "  No.  55  of  the  "  Spectator ;  and  '  The 
Pilgi-im's  Progress,"  which  is,  perhaps,  the  longest  allegory  ever  written. 
To?hese  may%e  added  a  very  recent  little  work  of  Charles  Dickens  cn 
Kled,  "  A  Christmas  Carol,"  which  cannot  be  too  highly  commended  foi 
the  moral  lesson  which  it  conveys. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


133 


the  qualities  of  that  excellent  lady.  She  also  had  a  grand- 
father, Goodness,  whose  blood  seemed  to  run  in  her  veins  in 
a  large  degree.  All  who  lived  in  her  neighborhood  used  to 
say,  that  she  was  the  loveliest  child  they  evei  beheld.  But, 
although  so  much  admired,  she  had  no  Pride  about  her, 
though  Vanity,  an  old  man  living  in  the  vicinity,  used  to  lay 
a  claim  to  relationship  with  her.  She  was  very  much  troubled 
by  his  daughters,  Selfconceit  and  Foolishness,  but  she  never 
retorted  in  the  least.  Even  they  themselves  could  not  say, 
that  they  had  ever  heard  an  angry  word  proceed  from  her 
lips,  and,  although  they  tried  to  disturb  and  ruffle  her  uniform 
good  nature,  they  never  could  succeed  so  far,  as  even  to  be 
able  to  say,  that  she  ever  appeared  to  cherish  a  wrathful 
spirit.  She  had  no  Hatred  about  her,  neither  would  she  foster 
Spite  or  Malice  in  her  innocent  heart.  She  made  rapid  ad- 
vances from  day  to  day,  in  every  good  word  and  work,  and 
her  name  even  became  a  proverb  among  all  who  knew  her. 
Mothers  made  her  an  example  to  their  daughters,  and  fathers 
did  not  forget  her  when  admonishing  their  sons.  She  became 
more  beloved  and  respected  every  day  of  her  life,  by  all,  for 
no  one  could  see  her  without  admiring  her  for  her  many  good 
quahties.  She  appeared  to  be  compounded  of  all  the  qualities 
that  adorn  the  female  character,  without  the  least  mixture  of 
anything  bad.  In  due  time  she  was  married  to  a  young 
gentleman,^by  the  name  of  LongsufFering.  Some  of  the  most 
distinguished  among  her  children  were  Faith,  Hope,  and 
Charity. 

Example  2d. 

THE  EMPIRE  OF  POETRY. 
BY  FONTENELLE. 

This  empire  is  a  very  large  and  populous  country.  It  is  divided,  like 
some  ot  the  countnes  on  the  continent,  into  the  higher  and  lower  regions. 
I  he  upper  region  is  inhabited  by  gi-ave,  melancholy  and  sullen  people,  who, 
like  other  mountaineers,  speak  a  language  very  different  from  that  of  the  m~ 
nabitants  of  the  valleys.  The  trees  in  this  part  of  the  countrv  are  very 
taJ^  having  their  tops  among  the  clouds.  Their  horses  are  superior  to  those 
ot  liarbary  bemg  fleeter  than  the  winds.  Their  women  are  so  beautiful  as 
to  echpse  the  star  of  day. 

The  great  city  which  you  see  in  the  maps,  beyond  the  lofty  mountains, 
IS  the  capital  of  this  province,  and  is  called  Epic.  It  is  built  on  a  sandy 
and  ungrateful  soil,  which  few  take  the  trouble  to  cultivate.  The  len<^th 
01  tne  city  is  many  days'  journey,  and  it  is  otherwise  of  a  tiresome  extent, 
un  leaving  its  gate,  we  always  meet  with  men  wto  are  killing  one  another  i 
wttereae,  when  yre  pass  through  Romance,  v/Irch  fbrros  the  suburbs  of 


184  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

Epic,  and     .ich  is  larger  than  the  city  itself  we  ^^^^^  ^^l*  groups^^^^^^ 
DeoD  e  vvV    ire  hastening  to  the  shrine  of  Hymen.    Ihe  ^loiintains  ol 
Ealedy  are  also  in  the  |rovu,ce  of  Upper  Poetry.    They  are  very  steep 
wirh  dangerous  precipices:  and,  in  consequence  many  of  ^^^s  peop  e  budd 
their  habitations  at  the  bottom  of  the  hdis,        ^imagme  themseh^^^^^^^ 
enoucrh.    There  have  been  found  on  these  mountams  some  veiy  beaut  ui 

anient  cities;  and,. from  time  to  time   the  mat^^^^^^^^ 
lower  down  to  build  new  cities  ;  for  they  now  never  ^^^^^^ .  "^^^^J^^,^,^. 
they  seem  to  have  done  in  former  times     The  L^^er  Poet  y  is  vei^^^ 
to  the  swamns  of  Holland.  Burlesque  is  the  capital,  which  is  situated  araiasi 
s?a.nanTpcSs.    PrU.ces  speak  th^re  as  if  they  had  sprung  from  the  dung- 
hillT  and  all  the  inhabitants  are  buflfoons  from  tlieir  birth. 

Comedv  is  a  citv  which  is  built  on  a  pleasant  spot,  but  it  is  too  near  lo 
buJlTque^  and  Usi.de  with  this  place  h^as  much  degraded  the  manners  of 

'Vbef  that  vou  win  notice,  on  the  map,  those  vast  soUtudes  which  lie  be 
tween^Hic  h  and  Low  Poe  rv,    Thev  are  called  the  deserts  of  Common 
fell  "^llllr'snota  single'cityin'the  whole  of  this  extensi^^^^  count  y 
^Tifl  nnlv  q  few  cottao-es  scattered  at  a  distance  from  one  another,  /"em; 
Lrior  of^L  clntr^s  be^^^        and  fertile,  but  you  need  not  -;ond«r  t^at 
there  are  Vo  few  who  choose  to  reside  in  it ;  for  the  entrance  is  very  rugged 
on  a^sfdes  ;  the  roads  are  narrow  and  difficult ;  and  there  are  seldom  any 
guides  to  be  found,  who  are  capable  of  conducting  strangeis 
^  Besides,  this  country  borders  on  a  Province  where  eveiy  perso^^^^^^^^ 
to  remain  because  it  appears  to  be  very  ^greeable  and  save  the  trou^^^^^ 
r.pnetratii    into  the  Deserts  of  Common  bense.    It  is  the  Fiovince  oi  ^aise 
Sughts  °  Here  we  always  tread  on  flowers,  -  every  thing  seems  encnant. 
in.?  C  its  greatest  inconvenience  is,  that  the  found  is  not  sohd,  the 
foo  is  always  rinking  in  the  mire,  however  careful  one  may  be    Elegy  is 
the  Capital.    Here  the  people  do  nothing  but  complain;  but  it  is  said  tnat 
hey  find  a  pleasure  iS  tSeir  complaints    The  -ty  is  sun-ounded 
woods  and  ro^ks,  where  the  inhabitant  walks  alone,  them  the  con 

fidants  of  his  secrets  ;  of  the  discovery  of  which  he  ,s  so  much  afxaid,  that 
he  often  conjures  those  woods  and  rocks  never  to  ^JJiay  them 

The  Empire  of  Poetry  is  watered  by  two  rivers.  One  is  the  ^^^^r  Knyme, 
which  hS  ks  source  at  the  foot  of  the  Mountains  ot  Reverie.  ^  ihe  tops  of 


are  called  the  Points  of  Sublime  Thought     Many  t^^^^^/^^™^' 

dinarv  efforts;  but  almost  the  whole  tumble  down  ' 

their  fall,  the  Ridicule  of  those  ^ho  admired  them  at  fiist  w^^^^^ 

whv    There  are  large  platforms,  almost  at  the  bottom  of  these  moumams, 

Sh  arfcalled  the'Te?races  of  Low  thoughts     1  he^^^^^^^^  a  gr  at 

Sng  so  mu  h  eCra^tln  their  meditations,  that  they  enter  the  caverns  be- 
fore  they  are  aware.  "^These  caverns        P^^'^^f  .-^^^.^f^^^^^^^ 

thoughts  are  never  at  variance  with  sound  judgment. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  185 

Besides  the  Kiver  Rhyme,  which  I  have  described  as  issuing  from  the  foot 
of  the  mountains,  there  is  another  called  the  River  of  Reason.  These  two 
rivers  are  at  a  great  distance  from  one  another,  and,  as  they  have  a  very 
different  course,  they  could  not  be  made  to  communicate,  except  by  canals, 
which  would  cost  a  great  deal  of  labor.  For  these  canals  of  communication 
could  not  be  formed  at  all  places,  because  there  is  only  one  part  of  the 
River  Rhyme  which  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  River  Reason,  and  hence 
many  cities  situated  on  the  Rhyme,  such  as  Roundelay  and  Ballad,  could 
have  no  commerce  with  the  Reason,  whatever  pains  might  be  taken  for 
that  purpose.  Further,  it  would  be  necessary  that  these  canals  should 
cross  the  Deserts  of  Common  Sense,  as  you  will  see  by  the  map  ;  and  that 
it  is  almost  an  unknown  country.  The  Rhyme  is  a  large  river,  whose 
course  is  crooked  and  unequal,  and,  on  account  of  its  numerous  falls,  it  is 
extremely  difficult  to  navigate.  On  the  contrary,  the  Reason  is  very 
straight  and  regular,  but  it  does  not  carry  vessels  of  every  burthen. 

There  is,  in  the  Land  of  Poetry,  a  very  obscure  forest.  Where  the  rays  of 
the  sun  never  enter.  It  is  the 'forest  of  Bombast.  The  trees  are  close, 
spreading,  and  twined  into  each  other.  The  forest  is  so  ancient,  that  it  has 
become  a  sort  of  sacrilege  to  prune  its  trees,  and  there  is  no  probability 
that  the  ground  will  ever  be  cleared.  A  few  steps  into  this  forest  and  we 
lose  our  road  without  dreaming  that  we  have  gone  astray.  It  is  full  of  im 
perceptible  labyrinths,  from  which  no  one  ever  returns.  The  Reason  is  lost 
in  this  forest. 

The  extensive  province  of  Imitation  is  very  sterile.  It  produces  nothing. 
The  inhabitants  are  extremely  poor,  and  are  obliged  to  glean  in  the  richer 
fields  of  the  neighboring  provinces  ;  and  some  even  make  fortunes  by  this 
beggarly  occupation.  The  Empire  of  Poetry  is  very  cold  towards  the  north, 
and,  consequently,  this  quarter  is  the  most  populous.  There  are  the  cities 
of  Anagram  and  Acrostic,  with  several  others  of  a  similar  description. 
Finally,  in  that  sea  which  bounds  the  States  of  Poetry,  there  is  the  Island 
of  Satire,  surrounded  with  bitter  waves.  The  salt  from  the  water  is  very 
strong  and  dark  colored.  The  gi^eater  part  of  the  brooks  of  this  Island  re- 
semble the  Nile  in  this,  that  their  sources  are  unknown ;  but  it  is  particu- 
larly remarkable,  that  there  is  not  one  of  them  whose  waters  are  fresh.  A 
part  of  the  same  sea  is  called  the  Archipelago  of  Trifles.  The  French  term 
it  L'Archipel  des  Bagatelles,  and  their  voyagers  are  well  acquainted  with 
those  islands.  Nature  seems  to  have  thrown  them  up  in  sport,  as  she  did 
those  of  the  ^Egean  Sea.  The  principal  islands  are  the  Madrigal,  the  Song, 
and  the  Impromptu.  No  lands  can  be  lighter  than  those  islands,  for  they 
float  upon  the  waters. 

JExample  ^d. 

A  humming  bird  once  met  a  butterfly,  and  being  pleased  with  the  beauty 
of  its  person  and  the  glory  of  its  Avings,  made  an  offer  of  perpetual  friend 
ship. 

I  cannot  think  of  it,  was  the  reply,  as  you  once  spurned  me,  and  called 
me  a  drawling  dolt. 

Impossible,  cried  the  humming  bird ;  I  always  entertained  the  highest 
respect  for  such  beautiful  creatures  as  you.  Perhaps  you  do  now,  said  the 
other ;  but,  when  you  insulted  me,  I  was  a  caterpillar.  So  let  me  give  you 
this  piece  of  advice :  Never  insult  the  humble,  as  they  may  one  day  become 
your  superiors. 

Exercises. 

What  subject  can  be  illustrated  by  an  allegory  with  the  following  bints 
or  a  ids  ?  '  . 


136  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Airfs.— A  hill  with  multitudes  ascending.  , 

The  temptations  assailing  those  who  are  endeavonng  to  ascena  ii 
The  temple  on  the  top  of  the  hill. 
Thi  failure  of  many  who  attempt  to  reach  It.  ^ 
The  labors  of  those  who  do  finally  succeed  — their  success  and  hap 
piness. 

What  subject,  by  an  allegory  with  the  following  1 

Aids.  —  A  wide  sea  or  ocean. 

Vessels  of  various  kinds  variously  decked. 

Their  similar  destination  for  the  same  port. 

The  various  objects  of  their  several  pursuits  on  the  vovage- 

The  straight  and  direct  course  kept  by  one  smgle  vessel. 

The  wreck  or  capture,  or  distress  of  the  other  vessels. 

The  safe  arrival  of  the  vessel  which  kept  the  direct  course. 

What  subject  by  an  allegory  with  the  following  ? 

Aids.— A  foot  race. 

The  preparations  of  the  competitors. 
The  rewards  offered  to  the  victors. 
The  influence  of  those  rewards  on  their  exertions. 
The  course  of  the  unsuccessful  competitors.  _      ,  .  ^  o 

The  success  of  the  victorious  one,  and  the  modes  in  which  it  wa 
obtained. 


XLIV. 


APOLOGUE  AKD  EABLE. 


An  apologue  is  a  sort  of  allegorical  fiction,  from  which  a 
separate  meaning  or  moral  lesson  may  be  drawn.  It  is,  m 
fact,  but  another  name  for  a  fable,  in  which  animals,  vegeta- 
bles, stocks  and  stones,  speak  and  act  as  monitors  to  mankmd. 

An  apologue,  or  fable,  differs  from  a  tale,  in  being  written  expressly 
for  the  ake  of  the  moral.    If  there  be  no  moral,  there  is  no  fable  * 

A  parable  is  a  fable,  but  is  more  generally  used  to  denommate  those 
alleg?ric.<l  tales  in  Scripture,  which  were  introduced  for  the  purpose  of 
Illustrating  some  truth  to  which  they  have  a  similitude.  Such  is  that  of 
"The  Prodigal  Son,"  " The  Sower,"  "  The  Ten  Virgins." 

^  s^rra^rr/moierfjiiresTara^e 

SffiS^"^^^^  lengthen  into  tales,  orlose  them 

selves  in  allegory. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


137 


An  apobgue  differs  from  a  parable  in  this  :  the  parable  is  drawn  from 
events  which  pass  among  mankind,  and  is  therefore  supported  by  proba- 
bility 5  an  apologue  may  be  founded  on  supposed  actions  of  brutes,  or 
inanimate  things,  and  therefore  does  not  require  to  be  supported  by 
probability.   JEsop's  "  Fables  "  are  good  examples  of  apologues. 

Example. 

APOLOGUE. 

Sicily  addressed  Neptune  praying  to  be  rejoined  to  Italy :  "  You  are 
foolish,"  answered  the  god,  "  if  you  do  not  know  how  much  better  it  is  to 
be  a  small  head,  than  a  great  foot."  * 

Example. 

FABLE. 

The  Bdly  and  the  Members. 

In  former  days,  when  the  Belly  and  the  other  parts  of  the  body  enjoyed 
the  faculty  of  speech,  and  had  separate  views  and  designs  of  their  o^vn 
each  part,  it  seems,  in  particular  for  himself  and  in  the  name  of  the 
whole,  took  exceptions  at  the  conduct  of  the  Belly,  and  were  resolved  to 
grant  him  supplies  no  longer.  They  said  they  thought  it  very  hard,  that 
he  should  lead  an  idle,  good-for-nothing  life,  spending  and  squanderino- 
away  upon  his  ungodly  self  all  the  fruits  of  their  labor ;  and  that,  in  short, 
they  were  resolved  for  the  future  to  strike  off  his  allowance  and  let  him 
shift  for  himself  as  well  as  he  could.  The  Hands  protested  that  they 
would  not  lift  up  a  Finger  to  keep  him  from  starving ;  and  the  Mouth 
wished  he  might  never  speak  again,  if  he  took  the  least  bit  of  nourish- 
ment for  him  as  long  as  he  lived ;  "  and,"  said  the  Teeth,  "  mav  we  be 
rotted,  if  ever  we  chew  a  morsel  for  him  for  the  future."  This'  solemn 
league  and  covenant  was  kept  as  long  as  anv  thing  of  that  kind  can  be 
kept ;  which  was  until  each  of  the  rebel  members  pined  away  to  skin 
and  bone,  and  could  hold  out-  no  longer.  Then  they  found  there  was 
no  doing  without  the  Belly,  and  that,  as  idle  and  insignificant  as  he 
seemed,  he  contributed  as  much  to  the  maintenance  and  welfare  of  the 
other  parts,  as  they  did  to  his. 

Application^  or  Moral. 

This  fable  was  related  by  Menenius  Agrippa  to  the  Romans,  when 
they_  revolted  against  their  rulers.  It  is  easv  to  see  how  the  fable  wa3 
applied,  for,  if  the  branches  and  members  of  a  community  refuse  the 
government  that  aid  which  its  necessities  require,  the  whole  must  per- 
ish together.  Every  man's  enjoyment  of  the  products  of  his  own  daily, 
labor  depends  upon  the  government's  being  maintained  in  a  condition 


_  *  Italy,  in  its  shape,  resembles  a  boot.  The  point  in  this  apolQ«ie  con 
*ists  m  the  allusion  to  the  form  of  the  country. 

12* 


138  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

tn  defend  and  secure  him  in  it.  The  fable  mil  apply  with  equal  force 
to  the  mmmur  of  the  poor  against  the  rich.  If  there  were  no  nch  to 
consum^X  products  of  the  labors  of  the  poor,  none  by  whom  pubbc 
SuY  might  ^ keep  her  chamiels  full"  the  poor  would  derive  but  little 


fruit  frosn  their  labor. 


XLV. 

REDDLE,  OH  ENIGMA. 

An  enioma,  or  riddle,  is  an  obscure  speech,  or  saying,  m 
a  kind  of  allegorical  form,  and  written  either  in  P^-ose  or 
verse,  designed  to  exercise  the  mind  in  discovering  a  hidden 
meaning ;  or,  it  is  a  dark  saying,  in  which  some  known  thing 
is  concealed  under  obscure  language  which  is  proposed  to  be 
guessed. 

Example* 

'T  was  whispered  in  heaven,  't  was  muttered  in  beU, 
And  Echo  caught  faintly  the  sound  as  it  fell : 
On  the  confines  of  earth  'twas  permitted  to  rest, 
And  the  depths  of  the  ocean  its  presence  confessed, 
'T  will  be  found  in  the  sphere,  when  'tis  riven  asunder. 
Be  seen  in  the  lightning,  and  heard  in  the  thunder. 
'T  was  allotted  to  man  with  his  earhest  breath, 
Attends  at  his  birth,  and  awaits  him  in  death ; 
It  presides  o'er  his  happiness,  honor,  and  health, 
Is  the  prop  of  his  house,,and  the  end  of  his  wealth. 
Without  it  the  soldier,  the  seaman,  may  roam, 
But  woe  to  the  wretch  who  expels  it  from  home. 
In  the  whispers  of  conscience  its  voice  will  be  tound. 
Nor  e'en  in  the  whirlwmd  of  passion  be  drowned  • 
'T  will  not  soften  the  heai't,  and  though  deal  to  the  ear, 
'T  will  make  it  acutely  and  instantly  hear. 
But  in  shade  let  it  rest,  like  a  delicate  flower. 
Or  breathe  on  it  softly,  —  it  dies  in  an  hour. 


*  The  thing  described-  or  hidden  in  this  enigma,  and  which  is  proposed 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


139 


Comparisons,  proverbial  speeches,  parables,  and  fables,  may  be  easily 
converted  the  one  into  the  other.  Thus,  "  The  miser  is  like  the  dog  iu 
the  manger,  who  would  neither  eat  the  hay  himself,  nor  suffer  the  hun- 
gry ox  to  cat  it."  This  comparison  may  be  converted  into  a  fable  aa 
follows :  "  A  dog  was  lying  upon  a  manger  full  of  hay.  An  ox,  being 
hungry,  came  near,  and  offered  to  eat  of  the  hay ;  but  the  envious,  ill- 
natured  cur,  getting  up  and  snarling  at  him,  would  not  suffer  him  to 
touch  it.  Upon  which,  the  ox  in  the  bitterness  of  his  heart,  exclaimed, 
A  curse  light  on  thee,  for  a  malicious  wretch,  who  will  neither  eat  the 
hay  thyself,  nor  suffer  others  who  are  hungry  to  do  it."  A  proverb  may 
be  extracted  from  this  fable :  "  The  envious  man  distresses  himself  in 
the  consideration  of  the  prosperity  of  others." 


XLVI. 


CHAEADE.* 

A  charade  is  a  syllabic  enigma ;  that  is,  an  enigma,  the 
subject  of  which  is  a  name  or  word,  that  is  proposed  for 


to  be  guessed,  is  the  letter  H.    The  letter  M  is  concealed  in  the  following; 
Latin  enigma  by  an  unknown  author  of  very  ancient  date  : 
"Ego  sum  principium  mundi  et  finis  seculorum  ; 
Ego  sum  trinus  et  unus,  et  tamen  non  sum  Deus." 
The  letter  E  is  thus  enigmatically  described  : 
"  The  beginning  of  eternity, 
The  end  of  time  and  space, 
The  beginning  of  every  end, 
And  the  end  of  every  place." 
The  celebrated  riddle  of  the  Sphinx,  in  classic  story,  was  this :  "  What 
animal  walks  on  four  legs  in  the  morning,  on  two  at  noon,  and  on  three  in 
the  evening?  " 

The  answer  is  Man,  who,  in  infancy  or  the-  morning  of  life,  walks  or 
creeps  on  his  hands  and  feet,  at  the  noon  of  life  he  walks  erect,  and  in  the 
evening  of  his  days,  or  in  old  age,  supports  his  infirmities  on  a  staff. 

*  Nearly  allied  to  the  enigma  and  charade  are  the  rebus,  the  paronomasia 
or  pun,  and  the  "low  conundrum."  [See  Catachresis.]  They  are  mere 
plays  upon  words,  and  are  scarcely  worthy  of  consideration  among  the  de- 
partments of  grave  composition.  The  Rebus  approaches,  or  rather  is,  in 
fact,  picture  writing,  or  a  representation  of  words  by  things  It  is  an  enig 
matical  representation  of  some  name,  hy  using  figures  or  pictures  instead 
of  words.  The  word  is  from  the  Latin  language,  and  literally  signifies,  hy 
things.  Thus  a  gallant  in  love  with  a  woman  named  Rose' Hill,  painted 
on  the  border  of  his  gown  a  rose,  a  hill,  an  eye,  Cupid  or  Love,  and  a  well, 
wliich  reads    Eose  Hill  T  love  welV    On  a  monumental  tablet  in  th'« 


140 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


discovery  from  an  enigmatical  description  of  its  several  syl 
lables,  taken  separately,  as  so  many  individual  words,  and 
afterwards  combined.    A  charade  may  be  in  prose  or  verse. 


the  represen- 
thus 


vicinity,  erected  for  a  family  of  the  name  of  Vassal,  there  is  the  rep- 
tatiouof  a  vase  or  cnp  (in  Latin, -yas),  and  tiie  sun  (m  Latm,  so^ 
forming  the  name  »  VassoU'    This  is  similar  to  one  form  of  the  hieroglyph 
ics  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  .  .  , 

The  Paronomasia,  or  Pun,  is  a  verbal  allusion  in  consequence  of  words 
of  similar  sound,  or  of  the  same  orthography,  having  different  meanings; 
or  it  ir.  an  expression  in  which  two  different  applications  of  a  word  present 
an  odd  or  ludicrous  idea.  It  is  generally  esteemed  a  species  ot  wit. 
Thus  man  having  a  tall  wife  named  Experience  observed  that  Me  liaa 
by  hn^  experience  proved  the  blessings  of  a  married  life."  Another  hav- 
ing undertaken  to  make  a  pun  upon  any  given  subject,  when  it  was  pro- 
poled  tnat  he  should  make  one  on  the  King,  replied,  that  "  the  King  is  not 
a  subject.    That  Majesty,  if  stripped  of  its  externals,  would  remain  a  jest. 

Puns  are  sometimes  expressed  in  verse,  and  appear  among  coUections  ot 
Epigrams.    (See  Epigram.)    For  example, 

"  I  cannot  move,"  yon  clamorous  beggar  cries, 
"  Nor  sit,  nor  stand ;  "  if  he  says  true,  he  lies. 

^^^^ '      -^hen  dressed  for  the  evening,  the  girls  now-a-days 

Scarce  an  atom  of  dress  on  them  leave  ; 

Nor  blame  them  ;  for  what  is  an  evening  dress 

But  a  dress  that  is  suited  for  Eve  ? 
Conundrums  are  the  lowest  species  of  verbal  witticisms,  and  are  in  general 
a  mere  play  upon  the  sounds  of  words,  without  reference  to  their  signihca- 
tion  They  are  generallv  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  question,  with  an  an- 
swer. Thus-  When  is  a"ship  not  a  ship?  Answer.  Whenit  is  a-groimd, 
or  when  it  is  a-Jloat.  When  is  a  door  not  a  door  ?  Ayiswer.  \Vhen  it  is 
a-jar.  What  part  of  an  animal  is  his  elegij  ?  A^iswer.  H\s  L  h  Lr  It 
vou  were  in  an  upper  chamber  of  a  house  on  fire,  and  the  stairs  were  a  way 
how  would  you  get  down  ?  Ansioer.  By  the  stairs.  If  a  demon  had  lost 
his  tail,  where  would  he  go  to  have  it  replaced?  Aj>swer.  To  the  place 
where  they  retail  bad  spirits.  If  a  hungry  man,  on  commg  home  to  dinner 
should  find  nothing  but  a  beet  on  the  table,  what  common  exclamation 
would  he  utter  ?    A?iswer.    That  Ws  all.  .  xu  •    •  •« 

Such  plavs  upon  the  sounds  of  words,  without  reference  to  their  signitica- 
tion,  however  thev  may  amuse  a  vacant  hour,  or  exercise  the  ingenuity 
of  those  to  whom  'they  are  proposed,  can  be  considered  in  no  other  light 
than  as  undignified,  not  to  say  childish  diversions. 

Of  the  same  character  may  those  witticisms  be  considered,  commonly- 
denominated  jests  and  jokes.  It  would  be  futile  to  attempt  specimens  of 
either  of  these  kinds  of  pleasantries.  They  are  so  various  in  their  nature, 
that  no  specimens  can  be  given,  which  Avould  convey  any  thing  like  a  clear 
idea  of  their  general  character.  It  mav  be  suflacient  to  observe,  in  general, 
that  the  jest  is  directed  at  the  object ;  the  joke  is  practised  with  the  person, 
or  on  the  person.  One  attempts  to  make  a  thing  laughable,  or  ridic.dous, 
Dv  iesting  about  it,  or  treating  it  in  a  jesting  manner;  one  attempts  to  ex 
cite  good  humor  in  others,  or  indulge  it  in  one's  self  by  jokmg  with  them. 
Jests  are  therefore  seldom  harmless  ;  jokes  are  frequently  allowable.  Moth 
ing  is  more  easy  to  be  made,  nor  more  contemptible  w]ien  maae,  than  a 
jest  upon  a  serious  or  sacred  subject.  "  Ne  hide  cum  sacns,''  is  a  maxua 
which  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  on  every  speaker  and  wnter. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


141 


Examples. 

My  Jlrst,  if  you  do,  will  increase, 
My  second  will  keep  you  from  heaven, 
My  whole,  such  is  human  caprice, 
Is  seldomer  taken  than  given. 
Answer,  ad-vic^. 

What  is  that  which  God  never  sees,  kings  see  but  seldom, 
and  which  we  see  every  day  ? 
Answer,  an  equal. 


XLvn. 

HYPERBOLE. 

A  writer,  under  the  influence  of  strong  excitement,  some- 
times uses  extravagant  expressions,  which  he  does  not  intend 
shall  be  taken  literally.  Such  expressions  are  called 
hyperbole. 

Example  1st. 

A  rescued  land 
Sent  up  a  shout  of  victory  from  the  field, 
That  rocked  her  ancient  mountains. 

Example  2d. 

The  iron  of  itself,  though  heat  red-hot. 
Approaching  near  these  eyes,  would  drink  my  tears. 
And  quench  its  fiery  indignation, 
Even  in  the  matter  of  mine  innocence. 
Kay,  after  that,  consume  away  in  rust, 
But  for  containing  fire  to  harm  mine  eye. 

Example  3d 

I  found  her  on  the  floor 
In  aU  the  storm  of  grief,  yet  beautiful, 


142 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Pouring  out  tears  at  such  a  lavish  rate, 

That,  were  the  world  on  fire,  they  might  have  drowned 

The  wrath  of  Heaven,  and  quenched  the  mighty  ruin.  * 

Example  4th. 

There  has  not  been  a  sound  to-day, 

To  break  the  calm  of  nature. 
Nor  motion,  I  might  almost  say, 

Of  life,  or  living  creature 
Of  waving  bough,  or  warbling  bird, 

Or  cattle  faintly  lowing  ; 
I  could  have  half  believed  I  heard 

The  leaves  and  blossoms  growing. 

Example  5th. 

And  there  are  many  other  things  which  Jesus  did,  thf 
which,  if  they  should  be  written  every  one,  I  suppose  that 
even  the  world  itself  would  not  contain  the  books  that  should 
be  written.  —  [^St.  John's  Gospel,  last  verse.'] 

Hyperbole  or  Exaggeration  is  a  remarkable  feature  of 
Eastern  poetry.  Mr.  Moore,  in  his  Lalla  Rookh,  has  some 
extravagant  instances,  which  may  be  pardoned  in  that  work, 
wTitten  as  it  was  in  imitation  of  the  Eastern  style,  but  they 
should  not  be  exhibited  as  objects  of  imitation.  The  foUowmg 
is  one  of  the  instances  from  Lalla  Rookh : 

"  Yet,  one  relief  this  glance  of  former  years 
Brouoht,  mingled  with  its  pain,  tears,  floods  of  tears, 
Long^'frozen  at  her  heart,  but  now  like  rills 
Let  loose  in  Spring  time  from  the  snowy  hills, 
And  oushing  warm,  after  a  sleep  of  frost,  • 
Through  valleys  where  their  flow  had  long  been  lost. 
Hyperbole  ought  to  be  very  carefully  as  well  as  sparingly 
used ;  for  it  is  requisite  that  the  mind  of  the  hearer,  as  well 
as  that  of  the  speaker,  should  be  strongly  excited,  else  it 
deo-enerates  into  Bombast.    It  is  usually  the  flash  of  an  over- 
heated imagination,  and  is  seldom  consistent  with  the  cold 
canons  of  criticism.  —  [.See  Booth's  Principles,  p.  138.] 

*  The  reverse  of  Hvperbole  or  Exaggeration,  is  Liptotes  or  Diminution 
which  is  a  figure  bv  «aich,  in  seeming  to  ]essen,_we  increase  the  force  of 
ttie  expression.  Thus,  wh^n  we  say,  "  The  man  is  no  fool,"  we  are  under- 
stoofto  assert  that  he  is  wise.  "1  cannot  praise  such  conduct,"  means 
that  1  despise  it. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


143 


XLvm.  # 

APOSTKOPHE! 

Apostrophe  is  the  turning  off  from  the  regular  course  of 
the  subject,  to  address  some  person  or  thing,  real  or  imagin 
ary,  living  or  dead. 

Apostrophe  is  generally  used  to  address  li'^"vg  objects  that  are  absent, 
—  or  dead  objects  with  which  we  we3-e  famili.  while  they  were  in  life. 
Some  of  its  boldest  efforts,  however,  exhaust  tht  %sence  of  persoiiification, 
and  caU  up  and  address  the  inanimate  objects  ot  ture. 

Apostrophes  addressed  to  the  imagination  ai-e  t  -  'uently  extenced  to  a 
considerable  length;  while  those  addressed  to  the  \  visions  must  /jc  short 
to  correspond  with  the  frame  of  the  mind  iu  wliich  ti,-    are  made. 

Example  1st 

APOSTROPHE  OF  PASSION. 

Oh  pardon  me,  thou  piece  <#  bleeding  earth. 
That  I  am  meek  and  gentle  with  thy  butchers ! 
Thou  art  the  ruins  of  the  noblest  man 
That  ever  lived  in  the  tide  of  time. 

Example  2d. 

APOSTROPHE  OF  IMAGINATION.* 

O  thou  Parnassus !  whom  I  now  survey, 

Not  in  the  phrensy  of  a  dreamer's  eye, 
Not  in  the  fabled  landscape  of  a  lay. 

But  soaring,  snow-clad,  through  thy  native  sky, 

In  the  wild  pomp  of  mountain  majesty ! 
What  marvel  -that  I  thus  essay  to  sing  .'^ 

The  humblest  of  thy  pilgrims,  passing  by. 
Would  gladly  woo  thine  Echoes  with  his  string, 
Th  )ugh  from  thy  heights  no  more  one  Muse  shall  wave  her 

wing. 


*  This  Apostrophe  is  the  production  of  Lord  Byron,  who  has  also  presented 
another  splendid  example  of  the  sam'e  kind,  in  his  Apostrophe  to  the  Ocean. 
Our  own  Fercival,  in  his  Apostrophe  to  the  Sun,  affords  another  example^ 
which  would  do  honor  to  the  literature  of  any  age  or  natioa. 


144  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION, 

poetry  and  oratory.  ^ 


XLIX. 
INTERROGATION. 


The  nnfigured  and  Uteral  use  of  mterrogation  is  to  ask  a 

Inte^ogadon  gives  life  '^-^^^i"  ^'^^^'^^^  "^.X.^t 
and  waken  the  hearers  — sometimes  to  comma  s  ^^^^ 

ssr^i.?^arr/S,=eS^^^^^^^ 

Example, 

Can  storied  urn,  or  animated  bust, 
Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath  ? 
Can  honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust 
Or  flattery  soothe  the  dull,  cold  ear  of  death  ? 


li. 

REPETITION. 


*  The 


book  of  Job  .botmcU  in  beautiful  i«tooM  of  thta  figure. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  145 

sentence.  It  is  significant  of  contrast  and  energy.  It  also 
marks  passion,  which  wishes  to  dwell  on  the  object  by  which 
it  is  excited. 

Example  1st. 

«  Weep  not,  oh  Love ! "  she  cries,  "  to  see  me  bleed — 
Thee,  Gertrude's  sad  survivor,  thee  alone  — 
Heaven's  peace  commiserate ;  for  scarce  I  heed 
These  wounds ;  — yet  thee  to  leave  is  death,  is  death  indeed. 

Example  ^d. 

By  foreign  hands  thy  dying  eyes  were  closed, 
By  foreign  hands  thy  decent  limbs  composed, 
By  foreign  hands  thy  humble  grave  adorned. 
By  strangers  honored  and  by  strangers  mourned. 

Example  3  c?. 

He  sung  Darius,  great  and  good, 
By  too  severe  a  fate. 
Fallen,  fallen,  fallen,  fallen. 

Fallen  from  his  high  estate,  and  weltering  m  his  blood. 


LI. 

EXCLAMATION. 

Exclamations  are  the  effect  of  strong  emotions  of  the  mind; 
such  as  surprise,  admiration,  joy,  grief,  and  the  like. 

Example  1st 

Oh  Liberty !  oh  sound  once  delightful  to  every  Eoman  ear ! 
Oh  sacred  privilege  of  Eoman  citizenship  !  —  once  sacred,  now 
trampled  upon. 

13 


146 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Example  2d. 

Oh  time  !  time !  it  is  fit  thou  shouldst  thus  strike  thy  mur^ 
derer  to  the  heart !  How  art  thou  fled  forever  !  A  month  ! 
Oh  for  a  single  week  !  I  ask  not  for  years  !  though  an  ago 
were  too  little  for  the  much  I  have  to  do ! 


m. 

VISION. 

Vision,  another  figure  of  speech,  proper  only  in  animated 
and  warm  compositions,  is  produced,  when,  instead  of  relating 
something  that  is  past,  we  use  the  present  tense  of  the  verb, 
and  describe  the  action  or  event  as  actually  now  in  sight. 

In  tragedy,  vision  is  the  language  of  the  most  violent  passion,  which 
conjures  up  spectres,  and  approaches  to  insanity. 

Example  1st, 

[Cicero,  in  his  fourth  oration  against  Cataline,  pictures  to  his  mind  the 
consummation  of  the  conspiracy,  as  follows  :] 

I  seem  to  myself  to  behold  this  city,  the  ornament  of  the 
earth,  and  the  capital  of  all  nations,  suddenly  involved  in  one 
conflagration.  I  see  before  me  the  slaughtered  heaps  of  citi- 
zens, lying  unburied  in  the  midst  of  their  ruined  country. 
The  furious  countenance  of  Cethegus  rises  to  my  view,  while, 
with  a  savage  joy,  he  is  triumphing  in  your  miseries. 

Example  2oL 

Methought  I  heard  a  a  voice 

Cry,  Sleep  no  more !    Macbeth  doth  murder  sleep. 

Example  3dL 

Avaunt  and  quit  my  sight! 
Let  the  earth  hide  thee  ;  thy  bones  are  marrowless ; 


AIDS  TO  ENGLTSH  COMPOSTION. 


147 


Thy  blood  is  cold  ;  thou  hast  no  speculation 
In  those  eyes  wliich  thou  dost  stare  with. 
Hence,  horrible  shadow ;  unreal  mockery,  hence ! 


mi. 

CLIMAX. 

Climax  consists  in  an  artful  exaggeration  of  all  the  circum* 
stances  of  some  object  or  action,  which  we  wish  to  place  in  a 
fitrong  light.  It  operates  by  a  gradual  rise  of  one  circum- 
stance above  another,  till  our  idea  is  raised  to  the  highest 
pitch. 

A  speaker  makes  an  assertion  which  he  feels  is  not  strong  enough  for 
his  thought ;  —  he  adds  another,  and  another,  until  he  reaches  that  point 
which  his  mind  contemplates  to  be  sufficiently  expressive ;  and  then  the 
climax  {or  climbing)  ends. 

Example  1st. 

Boisterous  in  speech,  in  action  prompt  and  bold, 
He  buys,  he  sells,  he  steals,  he  kills  for  gold. 

JEJxample  2d. 

[The  following  is  part  of  an  address,  in  the  case  of  a  woman  who  was 
accused  of  murdering  her  own  child.] 

Gentlemen,  if  one  man  had  any  how  slain  another ;  if  an  adversary  had 
killed  his  opposer ;  or  a  woman  occasioned  the  death  of  her  enemy  ;  even 
these  criminals  would  have  been  capitally  punished  by  the  Cornelian  law. 
But,  if  this  guiltless  infant,  who  could  make  no  enemy,  had  been  mur- 
dered by  its  own  nurse;  what  punishment  would  not  the  mother  have 
demanded  ?  With  what  cries  and  exclamations  would  she  have  stunned 
your  ears  ?  What  shall  we  say,  then,  when  a  woman,  guilty  of  homicide ; 
a  mother,  of  the  murder  of  her  innocent  child,  hath  comprised  all  those 
misdeeds  in  one  single  crime ;  a  crime,  in  its  o-\vn  nature  detestable  ;  in  a 
woman  prodigious;  in  a  mother  incredible;  and  perpetrated  against  one, 
whose  age  called  for  compassion  ;  whose  near  relation  claimed  affection  ; 
and  whose  innocence  deserv^ed  the  highest  favor  1  * 


*  Such  regular  Climaxes,  however,  though  they  have  great  beauty,  vet 


148 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Example  Sd. 

The  cloud-capt  towers,  the  gorgeous  palaces, 
The  solemn  temple,  the  great  globe  itself, 
Yea,  all  that  it  inhabits,  shall  dissolve, 
And,  like  the  baseless  fabric  of  a  vision, 
Leave  not  a  wreck  behind. 

Example  4th. 

When  we  have  practised  good  actions  awhile  they  become  easy ;  and 
when  they  are  easy,  we  begin  to  take  pleasure  in  them  :  and  when  they 
please  us,  we  do  them  frequently ;  and  by  frequency  of  acts  they  grow 
into  a  habit. 

Example  5th. 

And  besides  this,  giving  all  diligence,  add  to  your  faith,  virtue ;  and  to 
virtue,  knowledge ;  and  to  knowledge,  temperance ;  and  to  temperance, 
patience ;  and  to  patience,  godliness ;  and  to  godliness,  brotherly  kind- 
ness ;  and  to  brotherly  kindness,  charity 

Example  6fh. 

It  is  a  crime  to  put  a  Roman  citizen  in  bonds ;  it  is  the  height  of  guilt 
to  scourge  him  ;  little  less  than  parricide  to  put  him  to  death ;  what  name, 
then,  shall  I  give  to  the  act  of  crucifying  him 


at  the  same  time  have  the  appearance  of  art  and  study ;  and,  therefore, 
though  they  may  be  admitted  into  formal  harangues,  yet  they  are  not  the 
language  of  passion,  which  seldom  proceeds  by  steps  so  regular. 
Climax  and  Antithesis  are  sometimes  united,  as  in  the  following 

Example. 

Pride  still  is  aiming  at  the  blest  abodes, 
Men  would  be  angels,  angels  would  be  gods; 
Aspiring  to  be  gods,  if  angels  fell, 
Aspiring  to  be  angels,  men  rebel. 

Climax  is  nearly  related  to  Hj-perbole,  and  differs  from  it  chiefly  in  degree. 
The  purpose  of  Hyperbole  is  to  exalt  our  conceptions  beyond  the  truth :  of 
Climax,  to  elevate  our  ideas  of  the  truth  itself,  by  a  series  of  circumstances, 
ascending  one  above  another  in  respect  of  importance,  and  all  pointing  to- 
ward the  same  object.  This  figure,  when  properly  introduced  and  displayed, 
affords  a  very  sensible  pleasure.  It  accords  with  our  disposition  to  enlarge 
our  conceptions  of  any  object  that  we  contemplate  ;  it  affords  a  gratification 
similar  to  what  we  receive  on  ascending  an  eminence,  situated  in  the  centre 
of  a  rich  and  varied  landscape,  where  every  step  we  proceed  presents  a 
grander  and  more  extensive  prospect. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


LIV. 

ANTICLIMAX. 

The  descent  from  great  things  to  small  is  termed  anti- 
ehmax.  It  is  the  opposite  of  climax,  and  is  found  prmcipally 
In  ludicrous  compositions. 

Examples, 

1.  And  thou,  Dalhousie,  the  great  god  of  war, 
Lieutenant-colonel  to  the  Earl  of  Mar. 

2.  Under  the  tropic  is  our  language  spoke, 
And  part  of  Flanders  hath  received  our  yoke. 


LV. 

ALLUSION. 

Allusion  is  that  figure  by  which  some  word  or  phrase  m  a 
sentence  calls  to  mind,  as  if  accidentaUy,  another  similar  or 
analogous  subject. 

Allusions,  though  different  in  form  from  compai-isons,  are  of  the  same 
nature,  and  their  introduction  depends  on  similar  pnnciples,  Like  com- 
parisons, they  are  illustrative,  and  give  us  pleasure  from  the  discovery  ot 
unexpected  resemblances,  or  coincidences  of  thought  or  expression,  in 
making  allusions,  care  should  always  be  taken,  that  what  is  alluded  to 
should  be  generally  known.* 

Examples. 

1.  You  cannot  be  to  them  "  Vich  Ian  Vohr,"  and  thesf 


*  The  student  who  would  see  this  figure  beautifuUy  iUustrated,  is  ra 
ferred  to  Newman's  Rhetonc. 

13* 


150 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


three  magic  words  are  the  only  "  open  sesame  to  their  feel- 
ings and  sympathies. 

[Here  the  words  "  open  sesame''''  recall  to  mind  tJie  charm  by  which,  the 
robbers'  dungeon,  in  the  Arabian  tale,  *  was  opened.] 

2.  There  are  many  religionists  of  the  present  day  who 
make  it  their  shibboleth  to  be  able  to  tell  the  precise  moment 
when  the  heart  was  converted  to  God.  f 

3.  I  was  surrounded  with  difficulties,  and  possessed  no  clue 
by  which  I  could  effect  my  escape.  % 

[Exercises  may  readily  be  framed  by  the  student  who  attentively  con 
eiders  the  close  remblance  of  this  figure  to  Simile  or  Comparison.] 


LVI. 

lEONY. 

Irony  is  the  intentional  use  of  words  which  express  a  sense 
contrary  to  that  which  the  writer  or  speaker  means  to  convey, 
as  when  we  say  of  one  unskilled  in  grammar,  "  Admirable 
grammarian !  " 

When  irony  is  so  strong  as  to  be  termed  bitter  or  cutting, 
it  is  Sarcasm.  Irony  turns  things  into  ridicule,  in  a  peculiar 
manner;  it  consists  in  laughing  at  an  individual,  under  the 
disguise  of  appearing  to  praise  or  speak  well  of  him. 

The  proper  subjects  of  irony  are  vices  and  follies  of  all  kinds  ;  and  this 
mode  of  exposing  them  is  often  more  effectual  than  serious  reasoning. 
The  figure  is,  however,  sometimes  used  on  the  most  solemn  occasions,  as 
will  be  seen  by  the  following : 

Example  1st. 

Cry  aloud,  for  he  is  a  god  :  either  he  is  talking,  or  he  is  pur- 


*  The  Forty  Thieves. 

t  See  the  Book  of  Judge*?,  chapter  xii.,  verses  5,  6. 

I  See  the  story  Ariadne,  in  Lempriere's  Classical  Dictionary.  In  the 
use  of  this  figure  ( Allupion),  it  may  be  observed  that  the  subject  to  which 
allusion  is  made,  should  be  readily  perceiA'ed,  and  that  it  recompense,  by  its 
oeauty  or  its  utility,  the  digression  necessarily  made  in  introducing  it. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  151 

suing,  or  he  is  on  a  journey,  or  peradventure  he  sleepeth,  and 
must  be  awakened. 

See  1  Kings,  chapter  xviii.,  verse  2/. 

Example  ^d. 

And  Job  answered  and  said,  No  doubt  ye  are  the  people, 
and  wisdom  shall  die  with  you. 

Example  of  Sarcasm. 

In  the  name  of  common  sense,  why  should  the  Duke  of 
Bedford  think  that  none  but  of  the  House  of  RusseU  are  en- 
titled  to  the  favor  of  the  crown  ?  Why  should  he  imagme, 
that  no  king  of  England  has  been  capable  of  judgmg  of  merit 
but  King  Henry  the  Eighth  ?  Indeed,  he  wdl  pardon  me ; 
he  is  a  little  mistaken :  all  virtue  did  not  end  m  the  first  Ear 
of  Bedford ;  all  discernment  did  not  lose  its  vision  when  his 
Creator  closed  his  eyes.  Let  him  remit  his  rigor  on  the  dis- 
proportion between  merit  and  reward  m  others,  and  they  will 
Lake  no  inquiry  into  the  origin  of  his  fortune.  They  will  re- 
gard with  much  more  satisfaction,  as  he  will  contemplate  with 
hifinitely  more  advantage,  whatever  his  pedigree  has  been 
dulcified,  by  an  exposure  to  the  influence  of  heaven  m  a  long 
flow  of  generations!  from  the  hard,  acidulous  metalhc  incture 
of  the  sprin-.  It  is  Uttle  to  be  doubted,  that  several  of  his 
forefathers,  in  that  long  series,  have  degenerated  mto  hcnor 
and  virtue. 


Lvm. 

AIXITERATION. 

Alliteration  is  the  repetition  of  the  same  letter  at  the  begin^ 
ning  of  two  or  more  words  immediately  succeeding  each  other, 
or  at  short  intervals ;  as,  bug-bear,  sea-sick,  and  the  /  and  ^ 
in  the  following  line  : 

Fields  ever  fresh,  and  groves  for  ever  green. 


152  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COilPOSITIOX. 

And  the  Z  in  the  following :  Love  laughs  at  locksmiths. 

Tlie  remm  of  such  sounds,  if  not  too  frequent,  is  agreeable  to  the  ear 
because  the  succeeding  impression  is  made  with  less  etfoii  than  that  which 
precedes. 

Alliteration,  as  well  as  rhyme,  is  useful  as  an  aid  to  the 
memory.  Hence  proverbs  have  generally  one  or  the  other 
and  sometimes  both  of  these  auxiliaries.    Thus ; 

Birds  of  a  feather 

Flock  together. 

Fast  bind. 

Fast  find. 

The  following  are  remarkable  instances  of  alliteratioa : 

The  lordly  lion  leaves  his  lonelv  lair. 

Begot  bv  butchers,  but  by  oishops  bred, 
How  high  his  honor  holds  his  haughty  head. 

How  sweetly  slow  the  liquid  lay 
In  holy  hallelujahs  rose  ! 

Let  lords  and  ladies  laugh  and  sing 
As  loudly  and  as  light : 
We  beggars,  too,  can  dance  and  fling 
DuU  care  a  distant  flight. 

Approach,  thou,  like  the  rugged  Eussian  bear, 
The  armed  rhinoceros,  or  tlTe^Hyrcan  tiger,  &c. 

Eound  rugged  rocks,  rude,  ragged  rascals  ran. 

Lean  liquid  lays,  like  lightly  lulling  lakes,  &c. 

These  instances  are  not  presented  as  models  for  imitation,  but  rather  as 
exemplifications  of  the  meaning  of  the  term  alliteration.  It  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  observe,  that  alliterations  at  the  present  day  have  faUen  into  disre- 
pute ;  and  with  good  reason,  lest  the  vniter  in  pursuit  of  them  should  be 
tempted  to  sacrifice  sense  to  sound  Occasiontdly  introduced,  and  sparing- 
ly used,  they  are  not  perhaps  obnoxious  to  strong  objections.  Kimies,  in 
his  "  Elements  of  Criticism,"  says  :  "  Where  rwo  Tdeas  are  so  connected  as 
to  require  only  a  copulative,  it  is  pleasant  to  fin^S  a  connexion  in  the  words 
that  express  these  ideas,  were  it  even  so  siighr  as  ichere  both  begin  with  tlu 
same  letter.  Thus  :  '  The  peacock,  in  all  "his  pride,  does  not  disolav  half 
the  color  that  appears  m  the  garments  of  a  British  ladv  when  she  is  dressed 
either  for  a  ball,  or  a  birth-day:— Spectator,  Xo.  205.  'Asrain :  '  Had  dit  my 
log  of  a  steward  run  away  as  he  did,  without  m akin gfup  his  accounts,"! 
had  stni  been  immersed  in  sin  and  seacoaV—Bid,  No.  530. 
" '  My  life's  companion,  and  my  bosom  friend, 

One  faith,  one  fame,  one  fate  shall  both  attend.'  "  * 


The  following  is  presented  as  a  literary  curiosity  : 

ALPHABETICAL  ALLITEEATIO^T. 
TEE  BrSTTF.R  HTLL  ir0Mr3IE>"T  CELEBBATIOS. 

Americans  arrayed  and  armed  attend  : 
Beside  battalicms  bold,  bright  beautiea  blend. 


AIDS  TO  ENG1.ISH  COMPOSITION. 


158 


Exercises. 

The  student  may  change  the  terms  in  the  following  expressions,  foas  to  pr^ 
sJ  instances  of  alliteration.  A  word  of  similar  meaning  may,  m  each  phroM 
ot  sentence,  be  substituted,  so  as  to  exemplify  the  figure. 

The  royal  lion. 

The  songs  of  love. 

The  pride  of  the  sons  of  kings.      ^  ^,        ,  , 

One  belief,  one  fame,  one  destmy  shall  attend  botn. 

The  flowing  lays. 

How  the  brilliant  lake  shmes. 

His  proud  head  shall  bow. 

The  deceitful  tiger. 

The  heedful  cat. 

He  forsakes  his  solitary  lair. 

By  royal  prelates  commended. 

In  sacred  hallehijahs  listened  to.  ,      ,  . 

Let  noblemen  and  high-born  ladies  laugh  and  smg. 

Birds  of  the  same  plumage  assemble  together. 

The  falling  towers  with  curling  ivy  bound. 

Yet  would  the  village  commend  my  wondrous  power. 

And  the  bUthe  grandsire  skilled  in  gestic  lore 

ylas  frisked  beneath  the  load  of  fourscore. 


LVIII. 

PARAPHRASE  OR  EXPLANATION. 

A  paraphrase  is  an  explanation  of  some  maxim  or  passago 
in  a  book  in  a  more  clear  and  ample  manner  than  is  ex 

Chiefs,  clergy,  citizens  conglomerate,- 

Detesting  despots,  —  danng  deeds  debate. 

Each  eve  emblazoned  ensigns  entertain,— 

Flourishing  from  far,  -  fan  freedom  s  flame.  . 

Guards  greeting  guards  grown  gfe.Y,  -  guest  greeting  uest 

High-minded  heroes,  hither,  homeward,  haste; 

Intrenuous  juniors  join  in  jubilee,  . 

Kith  lienning  liin,  -  kind  knowmg  kindred  key. 

Lo,  lengthened  lines  lend  Liberty  liege  love, 

Mixed  masses  marshalled,  Monuinentward  move. 

ifote  noble  navies  near;  —  no  novel  notion; 

Oft,  our  oppressors  overawed  old  Ocean  ; 

Presumptuous  princes,  pristine  patriots,  paled, 

Queen's  quarrel  questing  quotas,  quondam,  quaUe<l 

Kebellion  reused,  revolting  ramparts  rose, 

Stout  spirits,  smiting  servile  soldiers,  strove. 

These  thrilling  themes,  to  thousands  truly  told, 
Usurpers*  unjust  usages  unfold. 

Victorious  vassais,  vauntings  vainly  veile^.  „  =^ 
Where,  whUsince,  Webster,  warlike  Warren,  waUeO- 

'Xcuae  'xpLetives  'xtraqueer  'xpres^d. 
Yielding  Yankee  yeoman  zest. 


154  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

pressed  in  the  words  of  the  author.  It  is  in  fact  a  translation 
of  the  author's  meaning  into  simpler  lar^guage,  accompanied 
^dth  such  explanations  as  will  serve  to  render  the  passage 
easily  intelligible.  The  author's  words,  therefore,  are  not  so 
strictly  followed  as  his  sense. 

^  Maxims,  proverbs,*  and  texts  of  Scripture  often  contain  much  mean 
ing  m  few  words.  To  present  them  in  a  clear  light,  and  to  explain  them 
m  all  their  bearings,  is  the  province  of  the  preacher  and  the  didactic 
writer;  who  thus  calls  in  the  paraphrase  to  their  aid  for  the  benefit  of 
illustration. 

Example  \st. 

"iVe  sutor  ultra  crepidam.^' 

"  Let  not  the  shoemaker  go  beyond  his  last."  These  were 
the  words  of  Apelles  to  a  Crispin,  (a  shoemaker)  who 
properly  found  fault  with  an  ill-painted  slipper  in  one  of  the 
pictures  of  Apelles  ;  but,  ascending  to  other  parts,  betrayed 
the  grossest  ignorance.  The  proverb  implies  that  no  man 
should  pass  his  opinion  in  a  province  of  art,  where  he  is 
without  a  qualification. 

Example  2d. 

Dionysius,  the  tyrant  of  Sicily,  stripped  the  statue  of  Jupi- 
ter of  a  robe  of  massy  gold,  and  substituted  a  cloak  of  wool, 
saying.  Gold  is  too  cold  in  winter,  and  too  heavy  in  summer, 
—  It  behoves  us  to  take  care  of  Jupiter.  From  this  incident 
we  see  that  the  first  consideration  with  a  knave,  is  how  to 
help  himself,  and  the  second,  how  to  do  it  with  an  appearance 
of  helping  others. 

Example  Sd. 

A  Scottish  proverb  says,  "  Cocks  are  free  of  horse-corn." 
This  saying  implies  that  people  are  liberal  or  profuse  of  what 
belongs  to  another. 

Example  4dh. 

Use  a  cat  to  the  churn,  and  she  will  call  it  custom.  This 

*  A  proverb  is  a  short  sentence,  expressing  a  well-known  truth  or  com 
mon  fact,  ascertained  by  experience  or  observation.  A  maxim  is  a  principle 
generally  received  or  admitted  as  true.  It  mav  here  be  remarked  that 
proverbs,  parables  and  fables  are  easily  converted""  the  one  into  the  other. — 
[See  Booth's  Principles,  p.  161.]  It  will  be  a  useful  exercise  for  the  student 
to  attempt  to  convert  examples  3d  and  4th  below,  into  a  comparison  and  a 
fable. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  100 

mx^Terb  implies  that  if  you  accustom  your  servants  or  other 
folks,  to  make  too  frequent  use  of  what  is  yours,  they  will 
think,  at  last,  that  they  have  acquired  a  right  to  it. 


LIX- 

OUTLINES  IN  NARRATIVE. 

A  simple  story  is  here  related,  with  outlines  of  the  same 
story  in  different  language,  which  the  student  may  fill  out  so 
as  to  present  the  same  story,  with  all  the  circumstances. 

Examples, 

When  the  city  of  Troy  was  taken  by  the  Greeks,  after  the  first  fury 
of  pander  ™  the  Lnquerors,  pitying  the  misfortunes  o  heir  c^^^^^ 
tives  caused  it  to  be  proclaimed,  that  every  free  citizen  had  the  libmy  ot 
ScTn^away  any  one  thing  which  he  valued  most:  upon  which  ^.neas, 
nedectinTJver^^^^^^  elseTonly  carried  away  with  him  his  household  gods. 
ThtSeeks  dSighte^d  with  hJ  piety,  gave  him  permission  to  carry  away 
with  him  aAy  other  thing  he  had  the  greatest  regard  for-,  and  imme 
Stely  he  took  upon  his'shoulders  his  aged  father,  who  had  grown  de- 
c  epTt^^  carrying  him  out  of  the  town    The  Greeks,  struck  with 

his  fi  ial  duty,  gave  him  leave  to  take  every  thmg  that  belonged  to  him 
declaring  tha  Nature  itself  would  not  suffer  them  to  be  enemies  to  such 
L  tewld  s^^^  great  'piety  to  the  gods,  and  so  great  reverence  to  their 
parents. 

The  Outline, 


The  city  of  Troy  •  thirst  for  plunder  was  —  

made  proclamation  that  every  free-born  citizen 

 prized  the  most.    JEneas  disregarding  — 

his  household  gods.    The  Greeks  pleased  __—  any  ortier 

l-liino-.   ^  his  aged  and  venerable  lather,  ine 

Greeks  admiring  ©very  thing  that  he   ' 

Nature  itself-  ungenerous  respect  • 

filial  regard  ;  • 

The  outline  filled  out. 

The  city  of  Troy  Juxving  been  captured  by  the  Gr^,  "^^^J^Zft!!^ 
plunder  was  par%  ^tioted,  commaeratmg  th^  m^unes  of  their  captitm 


156 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


they  made  proclamation  throughmt  the  unfortunate  city  that  every  free  bom 
aUzen  might  select  from  the  ruins  any  one  tiling  which  he  prized  the  most 
^neas,  disregarding  h^s  houses,  his  goods,  and  valuable  possessions,  took  mh 
his  household  gods.  The  Greeks  pleased  with  his  regard  for  the  objects  of 
his  religious  worship,  gave  him  permission  to  add  any  other  thincr  armna  hu 
possessions  to  tJiese  objects  of  hjs  primary  regard ;  upon  ivhich  he  immediately 
took  his  aged  and  venerable  father  upon  his  shoulders,  who,  from  the  infirmi 
ties  of  age,  was  unable  to  escape  imthout  assistance.  While  the  pious  son  wa 
thus  carrying  his  father  from  the  ruins,  the  Greeks,  admiring  his  disinierested 
JUial  reverence  for  his  helpless  parent,  gave  him  permission  to  add  to  what  he  had 
already  taken,  every  thing  that  he  owmed,  declaring  thai  Nature  itself  would 
mt  permit  them  to  be  ungenerous  to  one  who  had  exhibited  such  respect  to  th- 
dead  and  such  filial  regard /or  the  being  to  whom  he  owed  his  existence. 


Exercises. 


1. 

Sir  WilHam  Gascoigne  was  the  Chief  Justice  of  Endand  in  the  rei<^n 
ot  Henrv  4th  His  presence  of  mind  and  his  great  diffnitv  were  most 
nobly  exhibited  when  the  Prince  of  Wales  deteimined  to ''rescue  one  of  his 
sen-ants,  who  was  on  trial  before  the  Judge,  presumed  to  interrapt  and 
even  to  stnke  the  Chief  Justice.  Gascoigne  supported  the  character  of  his 
station  against  the  bold  aggression,  and  committed  the  prince  to  prison 
to  await  the  pleasure  of  the  King  his  father.  The  King  heard  of  the 
circumstance  with  becoming  propriety,  and  thanked  God  that  he  had 
given  him  a  judge  who  knew  how  to  administer  justice,  and  a  son  who 
could  obey  it 

Outline. 

One  of  the  servants  of  was  tried  before  and  con- 
demned, notwithstanding  all  the  interest  by  the  Kin^'-'s 

son.    The  Prince  of  Wales  was  so  incensed   .  Thejudo-e 

  dignity  of  his  ordered  ^  and  the  prince 

 insult  he  had  offered  of  the  laws   quietly 

—  gaol.    The  Iving  his  father  .    Happy  is  the 

iung  —  corn-age  to  execute  the  laws  a  son  

submit. 

2. 

A  painter  was  desu-ous  of  drawing  an  elephant  m  an  unusual  attitude 
with  his  trunk  erect,  and  his  mouth  open ;  and.  in  order  to  induce  the 
beast  to  show  himself  to  more  advantage,  engaged  a  person  to  stand 
by,  and  throw  fmit  into  his  mouth.  The  person,  however,  partly  to 
deceive  the  unsuspecting  animal  often  kept  in  his  hand  tlie  fruit  which 
he  pretended  to  give  to  the  elephant;  who.  not  Hking  the  mockery,  and 
supposing  the  innocent  painter  to  be  the  cause,  threw  out  of  his  'trunk- 
such  a  quantity  of  water  upon  his  paper,  as  entirely  spoiled  his  sketch, 
and  prevented  him  from  proceeding  in  his  work. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


157 


Outline. 

An  artist  uncommon  raised  open  — - — 

procured  and  loss  in  order  to  make —  advan- 
tageous  .    The  foolish  deceive  amuse  

 made   kept  the  fruit  .    The  sagacious   — 

not  relishing  and  believing  collected   which 

he  discharged  entirely  spoiUng  and  preventing   


A  o-entleman,  residing  at  Gosport,  England,  was,  when  visiting  Ports- 
mouth, usually  accompanied  by  his  dog,  in  the  feiTy-boat.  One  day,  it 
so  happened,  that  the  dog  lost  his  master  somewhere  m  Portsmouth,  and 
surmising  that  he  had  re-crossed  the  water  for  Gosport,  sped  his  way  to 
the  house  of  a  bookseller  in  High  street,  and  by  every  possible  means 
intimated  his  misfortune.  "  What,"  exclaimed  the  shopman,  "  you  have 
lost  your  master,  have  you  ?  Well,  here  is  a  penny,  for  your  fare  across 
the  water."  The  dog  snatched  up  the  coin,  ran  directly  to  Point  lieach, 
dropped  the  penny  into  the  hand  of  the  waterman,  and  was  ferried  across 
with  the  other  passengers. 


A  resident  at  wherever  he  went  attended 

  who  with  him.    It  chanced 


and  supposing  •  returned  speedily 

_  and  by  that  instinct  .  Have  you  lost  -- 

Well  some  money  seizing  made 

-  and  paying  —  was  conveyed  . 


LX. 

CONNECTED  NAEBATIVE,  EKOM  SCATTEEED  FACTS. 

The  selection  of  incidents  to  be  presented  in  a  narration  or 
a  description,  requires  some  taste  as  well  as  judgment.  The 
union  of  such  incidents  in  a  connected  narrative  is  not  alto- 
gether a  mechanical  exertion.  The  order  of  time  should  be 
strictly  observed.  Subordinate  to  the  order  of  time,  is  the 
order  of  the  circumstances  themselves.  It  is  perhaps  a  good 
general  rule,  as  in  the  case  of  the  arrangement  of  the  members 
of  a  sentence,  to  reserve  the  most  important  for  the  last.  But 
the  application  of  this  rule  must  be  submitted  to  the  taste  and 
Tudgment,  as  well  as  the  design  of  the  writer. 


L58 


AIDS  TO   ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOIT. 


Exercises, 
1. 

[The  following  particulars  are  presented  to  be  united  in  a  connect©<i 
aarrative.  The  expressions  may  be  changed,  as  it  may  be  necessary'  to 
tveave  the  circumstances  together  in  one  continued  narration.] 

History  furnishes  no  parallel  to  the  character  of  Washington. 
Washington  died,  after  a  short  illness,  on  the  14th  of  December,  1799 
He  captured  Lord  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown,  in  1781. 
This  event  established  the  independence  of  the  United  S'.ates. 
On  the  25th  of  December,  1776,  he  crossed  the  Delaware,  and  soon 
gained  the  important  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton. 
He  was  elected  President  of  the  United  States  in  1789 
He  was  President  for  eight  years. 

He  was  again  chosen  Commander-in-chief  of  the  American  army  in 
1798.  ^ 

His  abilities  were  first  exercised  by  Dinwiddie  in  1753. 

He  was  the  Aid-de-camp  of  Gen.  Braddock  in  1755. 

After  resigning  the  Presidency  he  retired  to  Mount  Vernon,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  pursuits  of  agriculture. 

He  was  born  in  1732,  in  the  county  of  Fairfax,  in  Virginia. 

He  was  descended  from  an  English  family,  which  emigrated  from 
Cheshire  about  1630. 

He  received  his  education  from  a  private  tutor 

2. 

William  Penn  lost  his  wife  in  1694,  and  was  much  afflicted  by  the 
event. 

_  He  married  again  in  about  two  years,  and  emploved  himself  in  travel- 
hng  over  Ireland  as  a  preacher  of  the  peculiai  doctrines  of  his  sect. 

In  1699  he  visited  America  with  his  wife  and  family,  and  returned  to 
England  in  1701. 

He  died  at  Rushcomb,  near  Twyford,  in  Berks,  July  30th,  1718. 

He  was  buried  at  Jordan,  near  Beaconsfield,  Bucks. 

His  character  was  truly  benevolent  and  humane,  and  his  labors  were 
exerted  for  the  good  of  mankind. 

_  The  long  prosperity  of  Pennsylvania  furnishes  the  best  evidence  of 
his  wisdom  as  a  legislator. 

He  was  born  in  liOndon  in  1644. 

He  was  expelled  from  College  on  account  of  his  religious  opinions. 
His  religious  opinions  differed  widely  from  those  of  the  Established 
Church. 

The  College  was  of  the  same  religious  sentiments  with  the  Established 
Church. 

His  father  left  him  an  estate  worth  1500  pounds  per  annum. 

Charles  2d,  King  of  England,  granted  him  a  province  of  North  America, 
ihen  called  New  Netherlands;  but  now,  from  William  Penn,  callod 
Pennsylvania. 

When  he  was  in  College,  he  withdrew  from  the  national  forms  of  wop 


AIDS  TO   ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


159 


«hip  with  other  students,  who,  like  himself,  had  listened  to  the  preaching 
of  Thomas  Loe,  a  quaker  of  eminence.  n  . 

In  1672  he  married  a  lady  of  principles  similar  to  his  own,  and  hxed 
his  residence  at  rvickmansAvbrth,  where  he  labored  hard  to  disseminate 
the  principles  of  his  sect  both  by  his  preachings  and  his  writings. 

In  1682  he  came  out  to  America  for  the  first  time,  and  laid  out  the  city 
of  Philadelphia,  where  he  invited  settlers  from  all  parts  of  England,  and 
held  out  to  them  a  greater  dogree  of  religious  liberty  under  his  consU- 
tution  than  had  ever  before  been  enjoyed  by  any  sect  or  people. 


LXI. 

NARRATION  EXPAM)ED.* 
£!xample. 

At  the  battle  of  Philippi,  Lucilius  wisliing  to  give  his  inti- 
mate friend  Brutus  an  opportunity  to  escape,  pretended  hiniself 
to  be  Brutus,  and  being  led  before  Anthony,  boldly  avowed  the 
aniiice.  Anthony,  admiring  his  fidelity  to  his  friend,  informed 
him  of  the  death  of  Brutus,  and  offered  him  his  friendship. 
Lucilii  5  accepted  the  offer,  and  continued  his  faithful  friend. 

Same  story  expanded. 

At  th^  battle  of  Philippi,  when  Brutus,  after  the  route  of  his  army,  was 
in  dano-ei  cf  falling  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  his  bosom  friend  Lu- 
cilius gave  him  an  opportunity  to  escape,  calling  out,  "'  I  am  pi'utus  . 
lead  me  to  Anthony  !  "  Being  conducted  to  Anthony  he  spoke  with 
great  resolution :  "  I  have  employed  this  artifice,"  said  he,  that  Brutus 
might  not  fall  alive  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  The  gods  will  never 
permit  that  fortune  shall  triumph  so  far  over  virtue.  In  spite  of  tortun^, 
Brutus  will  always  be  found,  dead  or  alive,  in  a  situation  worthy  ot  his 
courage."  Anthony,  admiring  the  firmness  of  Lucilius,  said  to  him,  you 
merit  "a  greater  recomnense  than  it  is  in  my  power  to  bestow.  I  have  been 
just  now  informed  of  the  death  of  Brutus;  and  as  your  fidehty  to  him  is 
now  at  an  end,  I  beg  earnestly  to  be  received  in  his  place  ;  love  me  as  you 
did  him,  I  wish  no  more."   Luciluis  embraced  the  offer,  engaged  himseit 

*  The  plan  in  narrative  writing  is  simply  the  statement  of  events  in  the 
order  of  their  occurrence  :  and  the  expansion  is  the  mention,  with  varying 
degrees  of  minuteness  of  their  statement,  of  the  different  circumstancea 
connected  with  these  events,  accompanied  by  incidental  remarks  ana  t© 
flections. 


160 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


to  Anthony,  and  maintaining  the  same  fidelity  to  him  that  he  had  done 
to  Bmtus,  adhered  to  him  when  he  was  abandoned  by  all  the  world. 

The  same  story  still  more  expanded. 

After  the  second  battle  of  Philippi  between  Anthony  and  Octavias,  tw( 
ot  the  Roman  triumvirs,  and  Brutu<=,  which  proved  fatal  to  the  latter,  and 
indeed,  to  the  hberty  of  Rome,  one  Lucilius  Lucinus,  an  intimate  friend  of 
iJrutus,  observmg  a  body  of  Thracian  horse  taking  no  notice  of  anv  other 
m  their  pursuit,  but  making  directly  towards  Brutus  resolved  to  stop  them 
and  save  the  Ufe  of  his  general  at  the  hazard  of  his  own.  Accordino-ly 
without  acquainting  Brutus  with  his  design,  he  halted  till  the  Thracians 
came  up  and  surrendered  him ;  then  he  cried  out,  "  I  am  Brutu-^  '  "  and 
begging  quarter,  desired  they  would  carry  him  to  Anthony,  pretendincr  that 
lie  teared  Octavius.    The  Thracians,  overjoyed  with  their  pre^^  and  fhink- 
mg  themselves  happy,  immediately  detached  some  of  their  own  body  to 
acquaint  Anthony  with  their  good  fortune ;  and,  in  the  mean  time,  ffiVintr 
over  the  pursuit,  returned  to  the  field  of  battle  with  their  prisoner.  The 
report  being  spread  m  an  instant,  all  over  the  army,  that  Brutus  was  taken 
and  tMt  the  Thracians  were  bringing  him  alive  to  Anthony,  both  soldiers 
and  officers  flocked  together  from  all  parts  to  see  him.    Some  pitied  his 
misfortunes,  others  accused  him  of  a  meanness  unbecoming  his  foi-mer 
glory,  for,  suffering  himself  out  of  two  much  love  of  life,  to  be  a  prev  to 
barbarians.    As  for  Anthony,  he  was  not  a  little  concerned  at  this  adven- 
ture, being  quite  at  a  loss  in  what  manner  he  should  receive,  and  how  he 
slioiild  treat  his  lUustrious  captive  ;  but  he  was  soon  delivered  from  hi^  un- 
easiness;  lor  as  the  Thracians  drew  near,  he  knew  the  prisoner,  who  had 
passed  himself  upon  the  Thracians  for  Brutus,  and  now  addressin-^  the 
Iriumvirwitn  a  generous  confidence:  "Be  assured,  Anthonv,"  said  he, 
that  no  enemy  either  has  or  ever  shall  take  Marcus  Brutus  alive ;  forbid  it 
ye  Gods,  that  fortune  should  ever  prevail  so  much  above  virtue  !    But  let 
hmi  be  discovered,  dead  or  alive,  he  wiU  certainly  be  found  in  such  a  state 
as  IS  worthy  of  him.    As  forme,  I  have  delivered  myself  up  to  save  him 
and  am  now  ready  to  suffer  whatever  torments  you  think  proper  to  in 
tlict  upon  me,  without  demanding  or  expecting  any  quarter."  Anthony 
wonderfuUy  taken  with  the  fidelity,  virtue,  and  generosity  of  Luciliiis! 
turned  to  the  Thracians,  now  sensible  of,  and  outraged  at  their  disapiviiut- 
ment,  and  addressed  them  thus:  "I  perceive,  my  fcUow  soldiers,  thnt  you 
are  concerned,  and  fuU  of  resentment  for  having  been  thus  imposed  upon 
bv  Lucilius;  but  be  assured,  that  you  have  met  with  a  booty  better  than 
that  you  have  sought  for;  you  have  been  in  search  of  an  enemv.  and  you 
have  brought  me  a  friend.    I  was  truly  at  a  loss  how  I  should  hr.ve  treated 
Brutus,  if  you  had  brought  him  to  me  alive  ;  but  of  this  I  am  sure,  that  it 
is  better  to  have  such  a  man  as  Lucilius  our  friend,  than  our  enemy  " 
Having  thus  spoken,  he  embraced  Lucilius  and  commended  iihn  to  the 
care  of  one  of  his  friends. 

The  student  niay  now  expand  the  folloicing  story  or  nan  alive: 
STORY  OF  MEGAN. 

Megan  was  one  of  a  tribe  of  Indians,  who  rancretl  the  extensive  wilda 
about  the  Falls  of  Niagara.  He  was  possessed  (jf  such  superior  persona] 
and  mental  qualities  as  are  veiy  seldom  concentrnied  in  the  same  person, 
generous  and  humane,  as  well  as  brave,  he  knew  how  to  conquer  a  foe, 
and  how  to  raise  him  when  disarmed :  and,  winie  he  hastened  to  shed  the 
bfeod  of  his  enemies,  he  paused  to  drop  the  tear  of  symjmthy  with  aflaicted 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  161 

friends.  By  these  shining  qualifications  he  was  endeared  to  t^o.^e  ^^-^.^^ 
h"m%nd  was  looked  upon  as  a  future  ornarnen/  and  champion  ot  his 

From  the  age  in  which  he  was  able  to  bend  a  bow,  he  was  ever  em 
ployed  either  in  pursuit  of  game  in  the  forest,  or  m  showmg  his  skill  m 
th^ma'nal^^^^  his  canoe.    His  nation  was  now  mvolved  m  a  war 

vhicTopened  to  him  a  field  of  action,  and  afforded  frcquent^opportum^^^^^ 
to  displiv  his  valor.    In  one  of  his  excursions,  he  rescued  ^om  capti  vity 
a  beautiful  female  of  his  nation,  who  had  been  taken  ^^rne^^^^^s^^^^^^^ 
and  for  whom  he  had  conceived  a  passion,  previously  to  her  being  tjken. 

Tto  mZal  attachment  was  not  a  httle  sti^ngthened  by  this  adven 
ture;  she  was  conducted  home  in  triumph,  a  day  was  appointed  foi  ti  e 
nuptial  ceremonies,  and  Megan  looked  forward  with  ^nd  expec  a  ion  tc 
the  happy  days  he  should  spend  with  his  beloved  Alcoris.  But  alas  !  how 
ofL  a^the  fairest  hopes  we  can  conceive  the  most  deceitful !  A  few 
days  only  had  elapsed,  since  his  return,  when  he  yielded  to  a  vica  that 
may  "^itl  a  clLacteristie  of  these  people ;  -he  drank  too  free  y  o 
spirit  and  lay  down  in  his  canoe,  which  was  fastened  to  a  rock  on  shoie 
and  was.soon  lost  in  sleep.  Impatient  at  his  too  long  absence,  Alcori. 
went  in  search  of  him,  and  what  was  her  surprise  and  horror,  as  .he  diew 
near  the  place,  to  see  his  canoe  loosened  by  a  -^^l' 7^«,^^?,r?own' die 
fraltless  attempts  to  gain  her  affection,  and  rapidly  floatir.g  down  the 
sXurre^^^^^^  great  falls  !    In  vain  did  she       out,m  vam 

extend  her  arms  towards  the  dearest  object  of  her  affection^  He  enjoyed 
a  sweet  tranquillity  till  roused  to  a  sense  of  his  danger  by  the  noise  of  the 
c«  Megan  Is  now  apprised  of  his  fate.  He  looks  back,  recognizes 
Alcoris,  and  waving  his  cap -goes  over  the  falls  and  is  seen  no  more.* 

The  strident  may  now  reverse  the  process  of  expandiuf^;  arid  present  cm 
abridgement  ofthe  foLhiumg  narration  A 

Many  are  the  tales  that  have  been  repeated  to  us  of  the  revolutionary 
stniSs  of  our  ancestors.  Yet  each  little  incident  connected  with  those 
tiS  of  nerirt^^^  often  listened  to,  becomes  interesting  o  us,  who  are 
n™w  enj-oylng  the  blessings  of  that  priceless  freedom  for  which  our  fathers 

bled.  ^ 

"  ProucQy,  O  children  of  freedom, 
The  stars  of  vour  banner  float  high  ; 

Bright  is  tile  halo  of  glory, 
O'er  the  graves  where  your  ancestors  lie. 

Cherished  may  every  memorial  be, 
Of  the  brave  ones  who  perished  that  ye  might  be  free. 

Such  was  the  motto  that  my  sister  wrote,  when  I  told  her  that  in  my 
nex?  composition,  I  should  weave  up  a  reminiscence  of  the  Eevolution,  and 

*  This  narrative  is  a  genuine  college  exercise,  presented  some  years  age 

^^^^Z^^^^t^^^^^Vr^^^^  within  a  few  weel.^ 
onl  of  th-  Dunils  a  young  lady  of  about  thirteen  years  of  age  at  the  public 
sJhooUf  ;4  ffihelutb^  has  the  charge.  It  has  been  thought  that  mode  3 
and  Specimens  of  this  kind  would  be  more  useful  than  more  finished  wut- 
?n.rs-  Siause  thev  present  to  the  student  something  withm  his  reach.  It 
win  not  ^very  difficult  for  him,  after  he  has  attained  some  ease  m  wiitrng. 
to  adopt  as  his  motto  the  principle,  «  Excelsior 
14* 


162 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


requested  her  to  write  a  sentiment  to  gi-ace  the  commencement;  but,  whea 
Bhe  glanced  at  the  simple  incident  I  intended  to  relate,  she  thought  the  motto 
and  the  sketch  were  not  very  appropriate ;  but,  as  I  insisted  on  its  appro- 
priateness to  my  brave  Arthur's  story ;  and,  as  I  also  had  the  slip  of  paper 
IB  my  hand  on  which  it  was  pencilled,  (possession  being  nine  points  of  the 
law, )  I  was  allowed  to  retain  it,  or  rather  she  was  obliged  to  yield  to  my 
whim,  and,  accordingly,  I  transferred  it  in  triumph  to  the  top  of  the  page 
on  which  I  commence  — 

A   KEVOLUTIONARY  STOKT. 

Near  the  extremity  of  the  beautiful  peninsula  on  which  Charlestown 
situated,  stood  a  large  old-fashioned  house,  in  the  year  1775,  whose  time- 
worn  walls  were  partially  concealed,  in  the  warmer  seasons,  by  luxuriant 
grape-vines,  that,  spreading  over  the  latticed  portico,  ran  across  the  small 
windows,  and  clambered  along  the  gable  roof.  A  group  of  horse-chestnut 
trees,  and  a  hedge  composed  of  the  briery  bushes  of  the  barberry  and  black- 
berry, with  here  and  there  a  sweetbrier,  covered  with  its  delicate  pink 
blossoms,  enclosed  a  yard  overgrown  with  bright  green  grass,  and  which 
extended  around  the"^  eastern  and  western  sides  of  the  mansion.  Beneath 
the  vine-covered  windows  on  the  west  a  small  parterre  of  flowers  bloomed, 
while  beyond,  a  vegetable  garden  extended  to  v/here  the  bright  waves  of 
the  rive/ Charles  rolled  onward.  The  house  was  occupied  by  Mrs.  Leslie, 
her  two  children,  and  a  female  domestic,  —  Captain  Leslie  being  with 'the 
American  army,  at  the  neighboring  town  of  Cambridge,  where  it  had  been 
itationed  for  nearly  two  months,  while  the  British  troops  lay  shut  up  in 
Boston. 

It  was  the  beginning  of  June,  and,  as  the  afternoon  of  a  beautiful  day 
drew  near  its  close,  Mrs.  Leslie  laid  aside  the  sewing  materials  that  had 
absorbed  her  attention  during  the  morning,  and,  stepping  out  upon  the 
green  turf,  directed  her  steps  tOAvards  a  low  wooden  bench  beneath  a  large 
apple-tree,  where  a  young  and  sweet-looking  girl  was  sitting.  As  her 
mother  approached,  Anna  Leslie  dropped  her  knitting  work  and  held  forth 
a  few  simple,  but  fragrant,  flowers.  A  caress  was  the  reward  which  the 
aflfectionate  girl  expected  and  received  for  her  gift.  As  she  threw  a  glance 
so  expressive  of  love  on  her  mother's  face,  it  was  sad  for  that  mother  to 
know,  that  she  could  not  perceive  the  smile  of  affection  in  return ;  for  her 
child's  dark  blue  eyes  were  sightless,  —  poor  Anna  Leslie  was  blind.  Few 
persons  would  have  thought,  as  they  looked  in  the  lovely  child's  face,  as 
some  strain  of  music,  some  loved  and  familiaf  tone,  or  some  bright,  happy 
thought  awakened  in  her  countenance  a  beautiful  expression,  which  ac 
corded  well  with  her  symmetrical  features, — few  persons  would  have 
thought  that  Anna  had  been  bom  blind,  that  she  never  had  viewed  the 
charming  scenes  of  nature,  that  her  eye  had  never  glanced  over  the  pages 
jf  literature,  or  the  works  of  art.  But  a  mother's  vv'atchful  tenderness  and 
oatient  instruction  had,  during  the  twelve  years  of  her  life,  somewhat  sup 
plied  the  deficiency  which  her  misfortune  occasioned ;  and  her  brother 
Arthur,  two  years  older  than  herself,  had,  with  more  than  a  brother's  usual 
affection,  cherished  and  protected  his  helpless  sister.  Unlike  the  interest* 
mg  and  unfortunate  Laura  Bridgeman,  Anna  could  hear  the  loved  voices 
of  her  friends  and  the  sweet  tones  of  her  mother's  harpsichord.  She  could 
give  utterance,  too,  in  a  low,  clear  voice,  to  her  thoughts  and  feelings,  and, 
although  she  jaw  not  her  mother's  smile,  she  he-ard  the  whispered  words  ol 
love,  and  returned  her  aflectionate  greeting. 

Drawing  her  daughter's  arm  within  her  own,  Mrs.  Leshe  returned  slowly 
tov;ards  the  house.  The  blushing  June  roses  were  sending  forth  their  rich 
odor  from  the  large  bushes,  covered  with  flowers,  that  bordered  the  path, 
and  Mrs.  Leslie  plucked  an  opening  bud  and  placed  it  in  her  daughter's 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


bair.  All  around  their  little  domain  looked  peacefully,  but  Anna  echoed 
her  mother's  sigh,  as  the  beating  of  the  drum  and  other  sounds  of  wai  came 
faintlvfrom  the 'hostile  camps  and  awakened  m 

thoughts  of  the  situation  of  tlieir  country,  and  the  wel  are  of  the  l-usbancl 
and  father,  whose  life  was  so  precious,  yet  nr  such  pen!  As  tl^^yj^^'eiit  ^ 
approached  the  house.  Anna  felt  conscious  that  her  mother  was  becomu  g 
absorbed  in  melancholy  reverie,  and,  to  divert  her  ^"f,^^'""' P^^P^^^^^^^^ 
meet  Arthur.  Mrs.  Leslie  consented,  and  they  passed  through  the  flower 
beds  and  proceeded  to  the  lower  parts  of  the  grounds,  where  Arthur  eni- 
ployed  himself  in  cultivating  the  vegetable  garden  ;  for  it  was  impossible  to 
pro-cure  a  man  in  the  town  ?or  that  purpose,  all  who  were  able  having  joined 
the  armv  of  their  country.  But  Arthur,  with  the  occasional  assistance  of 
RacheKtheir  faithful  black  servant,  had  managed  to  raise  q^>t«  ^  re^spect. 
able  stock  of  vegetables,  not  only  for  his  own  family,  but  he  sometimes 
found  means  to  carry  a  portion  to  supply  his  ^f^er's  table  at  the  camp. 
Arthur,  who  had  just  completed  his  work  and  refreshed  himself  by  a  bath 
in  the  river,  as  his  mother  and  sister  appeared  in_  sight,  hastened  to  join 
thorn,  and  to  communicate  an  account  of  an  extensive  depredation  commit- 
ted the  preceding  night  in  his  garden.  Naturally  impetuous  in  his  temper, 
Arthur  now  complained  bitterly,  and  vowed  vengeance  on  the  British  thief, 
as  he  persisted  in  calling  him,  for  he  had  traced  the  footsteps  over  his  deli- 
cate lettuce  beds  and  young  peas,  till  they  terminated  on  the  verge  of  the 
river.  As  his  bovish  imagination  magnified  his  wrongs,  Arthur  s  dark  eye 
sparkled,  his  cheek  flushed,  and  his  red  lip  curled  with  scorn,  and  not  till 
the  sweet  voice  of  his  sister  had  communicated  m  a  ^vh.isper  apian  for 
watching  that  night,  and  at  least  ascertaining  who  the  thief  \vas  did  his 
brow  become  unclouded,  just  as  they  entered  their  quiet,  low-ceiled  sitting- 
room.  \  very  pleasant  room  it  was,  though  old  fashioned.  Its  deep  win- 
dow seats  were  nicelv  cushioned,  its  clumsy-looking  mahogany  tables  with 
dark,  time-colored  surfaces,  highly  polished,  the  carved  boxes  and  stands 
that  came  from  Calcutta,  its  fireplace,  surrounded  bv  small  Dutch  tiles,  the 
antique-looking  portraits,  that  came  over  in  the  Mayflower,  it  was  said,  and 
the  painted  screens  placed  around,  made  the  apartment  a  favorite  with  Ar- 
thur and  Anna.  The  bright  flowers  in  the  old  China  vases,  and  the  white 
dranerv  of  the  table,  now  spread  with  their  simple  evening  repast,  enlivened 
the  somewhat  sombre  aspect  of  the  room,  for  the  sun  had  just  sunk  below 
the  horizon  and  the  vin^s  hung  thickly  over  the  windows;  but  Rachel 
mi^hed  them  aside  and  commenced  swaying  her  fly-brush,  as  Mrs.  Leslie 
seated  herself  at  the  table.  Rachel  was  somewhat  a  privileged  being  in  the 
familv  as  she  was  a  faithful  and  ti-usty  domestic,  and  she  often  enlivened 
the  children  at  meal  times  bv  her  quaint  expressions  and  anecdotes  of  the 
olden  time.  .  This  evening  she  began  to  lament,  as  she  glanced  ruefully  at 
the  plain  bread,  fresh  strawberries,  and  bright  water  from  their  own  cool 
and  shaded  well,  that  her  ladv  could  no  longer  preside,  as  foimerly,  over  the 
splendid  silver  plate  and  beautiful  China  tea-set,  that  once  adorned  the 
table,  covered  with  the  delicacies  of  the  season.  But  now  what  was  the  use 
of  the  plainest  oups  and  saucers  without  tea,  and  even  the  strawberries 
must  be  eaten  without  cream,  for  the  British  foragei-s  had  stolen  their  last 


BOW 


Arthur  who  had  been  absorbed  in  his  own  thoughts,  now  joined  in  the 
conversation,  for  he  generally  felt  interested  when  any  thing  was  said  re- 
spoctintTthe  injuries  inflicted  bv  the  foes  of  his  country;  and,  long  after 
Mrs  Lel^lie  ha  j  retired  from  the  room,  did  the  eager  boy  continue  to  listen 
to  Rachel's  ta'es,  and  even  Anna  at  last  left  them,  and  passing  out  of  the 
class  door  into  the  large  hall,  for  she  was  perfectly  acquainted  with  every 
nook  in  her  childhood's  home,  and  could  find  her  way  without  difncultv 
throut^h  every  room  of  the  house,  she  ascended,  the  broad  staircase  witd 
lar;rre°wooden  balustrades,  at  the  head  of  the  hall,  and  entered  her  own 


164 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


chamber.  Drawing  the  snowy  curtain  aside,  Anna  seated  herself  on  the 
window  seat,  for  though  she  could  not  look  out  upon  the  moonlit  scene,  it 
was  pleasant  to  feel  the  cool  fragrant  breeze  play  over  her  face,  and  hear  it 
rustling  among  the  branches  of  the  hoise-cneslnut  trees.  Long  did  Anna 
sit  there,  and  longer  she  would  have  lingered,  indulging  in  those  waking 
dreams,  sad  and  yet  sometimes  enchanting,  that  are  peculiarly  endeared  to 
those,  who,  like  her,  are  shut  out  from  many  of  the  bright  realities  of  life,  if 
the  door  communicating  with  her  mother's  apartment  had  not  geutlv  opened, 
and  Mrs.  Leslie  entered  with  a  mother's  care  to  see  that  all  was  safe. 
"  Anna,  my  child,  nine  o'clock,  and  you  sitting  here,  when  the  damp  breeze 
from  the  river  is  blowing  directly  in  the  window  ?  what  imprudence !" 
The  window  was  closed,  and  Anna  was  carefully  enveloped  in  flannel,  and 
only  her  urgent  remonstrances  prevented  her  mother  from  administering 
some  hot  herb  tea.  After  Anna  had  retired,  Mrs.  Leslie  withdrew  to  her 
chamber,  full  of  anxiety  for  her  beloved  child,  whose  delicate  health  and 
helplessness  seemed  to  increase  the  love  she  felt  for  her. 

When  the  old  clock  in  the  corner  of  the  hall  struck  nine,  Arthur  lighted 
his  candle  and  hastened  to  his  room.  After  closing  the  door,  he  took  from 
his  chest  an  old  fowling-piece,  and  carefully  examined  it.  Placing  it  on  the 
table,  he  repaired  to  the  window,  and,  parting  the  waving  tendrils  of  the 
vine,  looked  out  anxiously.  Light  clouds  had  been  flying  across  the  deep 
blue  of  the  sky  all  the  evening  ;  but  now,  darker  and  darker  they  gathered 
in  huge  masses,  till  it  was  impossible  to  discern  objects  with  any  distinct- 
ness on  the  river,  or  even  in  the  garden  below.  Arthur  was  a  brave  boy, 
but  he  hesitated  at  the  thought  of  descending  to  the  garden  and  there 
watching  for  the  thief,  for  the  increasing  darkness  made  it  impossible  to  see 
from  the  window ;  but  his  hesitation  vanished,  for  he  thought  he  faintly 
heard  the  sound  of  oars  on  the  river,  and  snatching  up  his  fowlmg-piece, 
and  silently  opening  his  door,  he  proceeded  lightly  along  the  hail.  As  he 
passed  the  clock,  it  struck  ten,  and  its  silvery  sound  somewhat  startled  him 
as  he  felt  his  way  in  the  dark.  Noiselessly  he  opened  the  hall  door,  and 
stepped  out  into  the  yard.  Everything  around  was  quiet,  except  the  rust- 
ling of  the  branches  as  a  gust  passed  by,  and  the  sound  of  oars  striking 
the  waves,  which  he  now  heard  with  more  distinctness.  Arthur  bounded 
lightly  over  the  hedge  of  sweetbrier,  and  made  his  way  through  the  dewy 
shrubbery  to  his  garden.  It  was  very  dark,  and  as  he  hid  behind  a  group 
of  currant  bushes  and  awaited  the  coming  of  the  depredator,  he  could 
scarcely  distinguish  a  single  object  Suddenly  the  noise  ceased  on  the 
river,  and  breathlessly  Arthur  watched  through  the  gloom.  He  started  as 
he  thought  he  perceived  a  tall  form  bending  over  near  him  ;  but.  looking 
more  closely,  he  saw  it  was  a  large  sunflower  bowing  its  head  in  the 
breeze.  Again  ;  did  his  imagination  deceive  him?  No;  a  tall  Highlander, 
his  tartan  and  plumes  shaken  by  the  wind,  crept  cautiously  through  the 
bushes  and  proceeded  to  fill  a  large  bag  with  all  that  the  increasing  dark- 
ness would  enable  him  to  lay  his  hands  on.  Arthur's  fears,  if  he  had  any, 
were  now  dispelled,  so  indignant  did  he  feel  as  he  saw  the  inroads  made  in 
his  fine  beds  of  vegetables,  and  he  sprung  behind  the  startled  Highlander, 
and  in  a  voice  hoarse  with  rage,  levelling  his  fowling-piece  close  to  his 
head,  threatened  him  with  instant  death  if  he  made  the  least  resistance. 
The  frightened  fellow,  rendered  confident  and  more  daring  by  his  former 
unmolested  visit,  had  come  totally  unarmed  save  a  dirk  in  his  belt;  but 
the  surprise  and  consternation  which  his  sudden  detection  had  occasioned, 
not  being  able  to  see  his  enemy  and  with  death  so  near,  his  presence  of  mind 
utterly  forsook  him,  and  he  followed  implicitly  the  commands  of  Arthur, 
vvho  ordered  him  to  take  up  the  bag  and  to  walk  in  front  whether  he  should 
direct.  Tremblingly  the  Highlander,  not  daring  to  move  his  head,  for  the 
loaded  gun  still  threatened  him  with  instant  death,  obeved  ;  and  Arthur, 
foiiowing  ciosely  and  silently  through  the  garden  and  along'  the  road,  stopped 


AIDS  TO  ENGXISH  COMPOSITION. 


tot  till  he  an-ived  at  the  camp  in  Cambridge,  where  he  f  ^^^^^^f^^^^^  bSv 
ito  his  father's  hands.    Proudly  Captain  Leslie  gazed  on  ^'9  mtrepid  boj 
Tnd  many  were  the  compliments  that  his  courage  obtained  ^oj^^he  officers 
and  soldiers    Nothing  could  exceed  the  anger  and  mortification  which  the 
Hi^hla  ^r  k^^^^^^  in  surprise  on  his  youthful  captor,  and  many 

Sere  t"  oaths  that  fell  from  his  lips  as  ^«  ^^-/h;  .,^;^f„^i::;3^^i%^^ 
listened  to  the  contemptuous  remarks  of  the  ^"^^^^'^^^^^^^^^^ff 
nassed  him  and  looked  upon  his  sturdy  form,  and  compared  it  witii  me 
St  grSefulfiPe  ofi&thurLesl^^^  long  remain  at  the 

camn  but  hastened  home  to  relieve  the  anxiety  of  his  mother  and  sister 
Sd  ?Ast  as  the  sun  be-an  to  gild  "tree,  shrub,  and  flower"  Arthur  with 
one  bound  spran^over^h^  thicket,  shaking  large  pearly  dew-drops  frorn 
the  ro°es  and  entered  the  portico  just  as  Ms  mother  was  descending  the 
fairs  fmm  h  s  room,  where  the  be'd,  which  evixlently  had  not  been  occu- 
pied had  dreadfully  alarmed  her.  Her  anxiety  was  somewhat  allayed  by 
thrapDearance  of  Arthur  ;  and  when  at  the  breakfast  table  he  related  to 
h"r  ZTto^nlti^.  adventure  of  the  night,  Leslie  knew  n^^^^^^^^^^ 
to  bl-une  the  temerity,  or  praise  the  courage  which  he  undoubtedly  naa 
man  fes?ed  Rachel  was  delighted  with  her  brave  boy's  conduct ;  and  long 
Xrward,  when  the  war  was  ended  and  Captain  Les he  had  removed  to  the 
c  tv  Mrs.  LesUe  resumed  her  former  station  at  the  head  of  a 

sp\endrd  estabhshment,  and  the  sweet  Anna  had  cultivated  w^^^^^ 
brother's  assistance,  the  learning  and  accomplishments  ^tt^^^^^-J^  .^^ /"^^^^ 
her  situation,  then  did  Rachel  recount  to  her  wondermg  hearers  the  story 
of  Arthur's  adventure  with  the  Highlander. 


LXIL 
DESCEIPTION. 


Description,  defined  by  Webster,  is  "  a  representation  of 
names,  natures,  or  properties,  that  give  to  another  a  view  ot 
the  thing." 

It  is,  in  fine,  a  picture,  delineated,  not  by  lines,  but  by  words ;  and  it 
must  be  so  presented  as  to  convey  a  clear,  definite,  and  exact  semblance 
to  the  mind,  such  as  the  object  described  presents  to  the  eve.  buch  a  re- 
presentation mav  be  called  a  faithful  description.  Faithful  descriptions, 
therefore,  ai-e  faithful  pictures.  All  definitions  must  be  less  perfect  des- 
criptions of  a  material  thin.s^,  than  a  visible  figure  or  delineation.  Ba% 
when  a  definition  is  expanded,  so  as  to  embrace  not  only  all  the  particu- 
lars in  which  the  object  defined  differs  from  other  objects,  hnt  also  those 
in  which  it  resembles  others  of  the  same  kind,  such  a  definition,  is,  in  tact, 

^  O^n^to  peculiar  associations  in  the  mind,  and  the  difference  in  the 
habits  of  perception  and  observation,  no  two  individuals  would  probably 
describe  the  same  scene  or  the  same  object  alike.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  mth  voung  writers.    Some,  from  a  natural  sluggishness  ot  mm<l. 


166 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


will  perceive  few  particulars  worthy  of  notice,  where  others,  of  difFerenl 
temperament,  will  find  the  subject  replete  with  interesting  details,  ab 
worthy  of  regard.* 

A  few  suggestions  will  now  be  presented,  which  will  probably  lead  those 
who  may  use  this  book  to  think,  and  to  use  their  eyes  to  some  purpose, 
when  called  upon  to  give  a  written  description  of  any  sensible  object. 
These  suggestions  will  be  followed  by  a  list  of  details,  some  one  or  more 
of  which  may  always  be  noticed  in  a  written  description. 

It  will  be  noticed,  that  the  object  in  presenting  such  a  list  is  only,  as 
has  already  been  said,  to  suggest  ideas,  which  the  student  himself  is  to  mould 
as  they  may  arise,  and  combine  with  what  may  spring  spontaneously  from 
his  own  mind. 

To  collect  materials  for  a  good  description,  there  must  be  a  devoted  at 
tention  to  the  beauties  of  nature  and  to  the  scenes  of  social  life.  The 
mind  will  thereby  be  rendered  susceptible  and  discriminative,  acquiring 
sources  of  improvement  which  would  otherwise  be  lost,  while  variety  and 
copiousness  of  expression  will  at  the  same  time  be  secured. 

There  are  three  great  classes,  under  one  of  which  all  the  varieties  of 
description  may  be  arranged.  Under  the  first  class  are  included  all  those 
subjects  which  are  immediately  under  personal  notice ;  which  are  actually 
present  before  our  eyes.  In  the  second  class  may  be  arranged  all  those 
which  have  been  noticed,  but  have  left  only  their  pictures  in  the  memory. 
The  third  class  includes  only  those  subjects  which  are  purely  imaginary. 
In  the  descriptions  of  all  these  classes,  the  object  to  be  eff^ected  is  one  and 
the  same ;  namely,  to  present  to  the  reader  a  picture,  easy  and  natural, 
lively  in  its  character,  and  animated  in  its  appearance ;  making  those  de 
tails  the  most  prominent  which  would  affect  the  beholder  as  most  striking, 
and  throwing,  as  it  were,  into  the  shade  those  circumstances  which  are 
designed  to  produce  a  subordinate  impression.  In  producing  such  an 
eff'ect,  the  writer  should  pay  particular  attention  to  the  epithets  t  with 
which  he  designates  particular  objects,  that  he  may  render  the  impression, 
which  he  designs  that  they  should  convey,  strong  and  durable.  For  this 
reason  he  cannot  be  too  particular  in  the  choice  of  his  qualifying  words, 
for  they  are  sometimes  more  expressive  than  the  objects  themselves  when 
presented  in  naked  simplicity. 

Thus,  for  instance,  suppose  we  arc  describing  a  scene  in  a  wood  or 
forest ;  the  following  terms  would  appropriately  describe  the  appearance 
of  the  scene :  Dark,  obscure,  deep,  dreary,  gloomy,  overcast,  indistinct, 
dim,  cloudy,  dense,  lurid,  livid  &c. 

Or  a  summer's  noon;  the  following  terms  will  be  found  in  most  cases 
suitable :  Bright,  shining,  clear,  lucid,  brilliant,  dazzling,  splendid,  res- 
plendent, sparkling,  refulgent,  ardent,  conspicuous,  clear,  placid,  &c. 

Or  a  storm,  or  a  cataract ;  the  following  terms  will  be  found  expressive : 
Harsh,  discordant,  roar,  howl,  hiss,  crash,  reverberate,  dash,  splash,  mur- 
mur, growl,  clamorous,  confused,  terrific,  tremendous,  thundering,  &c. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  description,  also,  in  which  the  following  terms 
may  not  only,  with  considerable  advantage,  be  interwoven,  but  the  tenns 
themselves,  by  the  law  of  association,  will  suggest  ideas ;  such  as,  placid, 
calm,  tranquil,  motionless,  peaceful,  serene,  restless,  lazy,  unruffled, 


*  See  the  "  Dialogue  between  a  Tutor  and  his  Pupils,"  on  page  8th. 
t  See  the  article  on  epithets. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


hushed,  silent,  voiceless,  sleeping,  breathless,  t^^"«P^^^^y\*' ^^^.^WpTS 
en-ulphed,  unmeasured,  beautiful,  mingled,  crystal,  golden,  silveiy,  mag- 
nificent,  breezeless,  kindred,  &c.,  &c.,  &c.  -.i,  ^i,^.^  tii^. 

Acquaintance  with  the  beauties  of  nature,  particularly  wi  h  those  of  th^ 
earThlnd  the  sky,  and  with  the  lights  and  shadows  of  hfe,  must  be  considered 
as  a  great  acquisition  to  any  mind;  and  consequently  the  con^majid  of 
language,  so  tequisite  to  embody  and  depicture  the  same  with  the  glow 
and^va^•mth  which  imagination  lends  to  description,  "^^^^^^fe  regarded  a^^ 
an  object  wonhy  of  the  highest  regard  by  aU  who  aim  at  bemg  distm- 

^tndtsSipt?^^^^^  to  which  to  direct  the  attention  is 

the  sSion  of  the  circumstances.  The  scene,  or  the  circumstance 
L  d  be  Cught  with  distinctness  and  fulness  to  the  ^v.  We  should 
be  nlaced  as  it  were,  by  the  description  in  the  midst  of  the  group  of  par- 
ticuCs  an^  be  madeUy  acquainted  with  all  its  pecu  iarities^^  i ^ 
which  i  called  tmth  to  nature  is  effected  by  the  skilful  selection  and  ar- 
rangement of  the  circumstances,  and  constitutes  the  ^^P^fl^l^^^l  ^^l' 
criptive  writing.  In  some  instances,  especially  where  it  is  desirable  that 
S  description  should  be  bold  and  striking,  the  enumeration  of  circum- 
stances  may  be  less  full  and  minute. 

In  describing  natural  scenery,  the  student  will  find  some 


*  Probably  no  writer  has  ever  surpassed  Sir  Walter  Scott  m  the  beauty, 
fidelity,  and  Accuracy  of  his  descriptions  The  ^ll^.^yi^S  f  ^'J^^^^^ 
Morritt's  "Memorandum,"  taken  from  Lockhart's  Life  of  Sir  Walter  Vol. 
III.,  page  30,  exhibits  his  views,  and  the  pains  that  he  took  to  be  accurate 
Speaking  of  the  visit  of  the  great  novelist  at  Rokeby,  Mr.  Morritt  says  :  '  I 
had  many  previous  opportunities  of  testing  the  almost  conscientious  fidelity 
of  hiriocal  descriptions;  but  I  could  not  help  bemg, singularly  struck  with 
L  ights  which  this  visit  threw  on  that  characteristic  of  his  compositions. 
The  morning  after  he  arrived,  he  said,  '  You  have  often  given  me  materials 


The  mornins:  alter  ne  arriveu,  ae  sum,    i^u.  new.  . --^  — 

for  a  romance;  now  I  want  a'good  robber's  cave  and  an  old  church  of  the 
rShtsort.'  We  rode  out,  and  he  found  what  he  wanted  in  he  old  slate 
nuan-  es  of  Brignal,  and  the  ruined  Abbey  of  Egglestone  I  observed  him 
Sng  down  ev'^en  the  pecuLiwr  little  wild  flowers  and  herbs  that  <^cczdentalhj 
Irew^aro^cnd  and  on  tlae  side  of  a  bold  crag,  near  his  f ^^^^^^^f^^^^^ 
Senzil;  and  could  not  help  saying,  that  as  he  was  not  to  b^^uP^^  ®^th  n 
his  work,  daisies,  violets,  and  primroses  would  be  ^'^^f  f.^^^.'^^^i^J^u^'' 
hrcmbler  plants  he  was  examining.  I  l^^gh^^' ^.^^^i' f.i^i' 
ness  ;  but  I  understood  him  when  he  replied,  '  that  m  future  herself  no  two 
scenes  are  exactly  alike  ;  and  that  ivhoever  copied  tridy  what  was  before  lus 
eves.  wo2dd  possess  the  samie  variety  in  his  descriptions,  and  exhibit  appa. 
rentlv  an  imagination  as  boundless  as  the  range  of  nature  in  the  scenes  he 
recorded;  whereas,  whoever  trusted  to  imagination,  would  soon  find  his 
own  mind  circumscribed  and  contracted  to  a  few  favorite  images  and  the 
repetition  of  these  would  sooner  or  later  produce  that  very  monotony  and 
baVrenness  which  had  always  haunted  descript|^ve  poetry  in  the  ha^^^^^^^ 
any  but  patient  worshippers  of  truth.  Besides  which,'  he  said 
and  peculiarities  make  a  fictitious  story  look  so  much  better  xn  the  tace^ 
In  fact,  from  his  boyish  habits,  he  was  buthdf  sa  isfied  with  the  mos.  beau 
tiful  scenery  when  he  could  not  connect  ^vith  it  some  local  legend  and 
when  I  was  forced  sometimes  to  confess,  with  the  knife-grmder  Story  . 
God  bless  you!  I  have  none  to  tell,  sir,' -  he  would  laugh,  and  say,  Then 
i«t  us  make  one,  —  nothing  so  easy  as  t@  make  a  traditxn. 


168 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


aid  in  the  following  lists  of  particulars,  which  are  here  intro 
duced  as  suggestive  of  ideas,  which  he  himself  is  to  mould  ba 
they  may  arise,  and  combine  with  what  may  spring  spont* 
neously  from  his  own  mind.  * 

A  COUNTRT. 

Its  principal  water  courses  : 
Its  chains  of  mountains  : 

The  nature  of  the  hills,  whether  more  or  less  nigged ;  the  nature  of  the 
morasses,  whether  more  or  less  practicable  : 

The  rapidity  and  depth  of  the  rivers  ;  the  nature  of  their  fords,  sluices, 
and  piers  ;  the  state  of  the  bridges,  and  their  position  :  of  the  roads,  and 
the  necessary  repairs ;  the  reasons  for  preferring  one  road  to  another, 
which  would 'lead  to  the  same  object,  such  as  the  ease  of  procuring  subsist 
ence,  of  travelling  in  security  —  the  lateral  communications  opening  from 
the  great  or  main  roads  —  the  population  of  the  villages,  occupations  of 
the  irJiabitants,  the  means  of  transportation,  the  chief  commerce  of  the 
inhabitants,  their  industry,  habits,  and  manners  —  the  productions  of  the 
country,  quantity  and  kind  —  the  liquors,  vinous  or  spkituous,  wdth  their 
effects  on  the  inhabitants. 

Of  Rivers  :  Their  direction  —  their  course  —  the  nature  of  their  beds , 
their  breadth  —  their  floods  and  times  of  drought ;  their  meadows,  and 
the  marshes  that  intersect  them  ;  the  mills  upon  their  banks  ;  the  breadth 
of  their  valleys  —  the  hills  and  ridges  which  skirt  them  —  the  side  on 
which  are  commanding  heights  —  the  tributary  rivulets,  and  the  ravines 
which  open  into  the  valley  of  the  stream  —  the  distance  between  them ; 
cf  what  nature  are  the  shrabs,  the  gullies,  the  brooks,  the  roads,  &c.  — the 
q\tality  of  the  hedges,  they  are  thin  in  poor  soil,  but  in  rich  laud  they  are 
'liick,  and  formidable  objects  to  the  march  of  troops,  &c. 

C^XALS.  Their  communication  —  the  nature  of  the  gi'ound  through 
^^-hich  they  are  cut  —  the  means  of  draining  them,  and  of  turning  their 
courses  ;  their  locks  —  the  mode  of  destroying  and  of  protecting  them  — 
how  their  navigation  may  be  obstructed  or  improved. 

iVIills  often  render  water-courses  fordable  or  not,  at  pleasure,  by  means 
of  the  water  dammed  up  for  their  supply.    When  sand  is  of  the  ordinary 


^  These  lists  of  particulars  are  taken,  with  slight  alterations  necessary  to 
adapt  them  to  the  purposes  of  this  work,  from  "Lallemand's  Artillery  Ser- 
vice," article  Reconnoiteringy  They  were  original  in  a  work  entitled 
"  Vaide  memoire  a  I'usage  des  officiers  dfartillerie  de  France,'''  par  le  General 
Gasseiuii. 

From  the  dialogue  between  the  tutor  and  his  pupils,  to  which  reference 
has  already  boen  made,  the  student  will  derive  some  hints  upon  "  the  art.  of 
sf.ei.7ig,"  or  using  his  eyes  aright.  This  dialogue,  calculated  as  it  is  to 
awaken  attention,  and  to  fix  habits  of  observation,  is  particulariy  recom 
mended  to  the  careful  perusal  of  the  student,  who  would  relieve  his  mind 
from  the  labors  of  composition.  Habits  of  observation,  attended  with  care- 
ful analysis,  not  only  aid  the  mind  in  its  search  after  ideas,  but  also  direct 
i'tin  a  judicious  selection  of  those  which  are  afforded  by  association. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


color,  the  roads  are  generally  good ;  but  if  the  sand  he  black,  or  mixed 
with  small  white  "grains,  the  roads  are  impassable  in  winter,  and  often  in 
time  of  rain. 

Climate.  The  physical  causes  wliich  may  affect  health  —  the  quality 
of  the  air,  cold,  hot,  wet,  or  dry ;  seasons  —whether  inclement,  and  how 
long  so  —  the  means  of  protection  from  their  effects  — the  customs  of  the 
inhabitants  in  this  respect. 

Coasts.  The  nature  of  the  coasts  —  whether  lined  with  sand-hills ; 
covered  with  rocks,  which  render  the  approach  more  or  less  dangerous; 
or  precipices,  which  forbid  it  altogether  The  parts  which  are  open  and 
uncovered,  and  proper  for  landing ;  the  bays  which  form  roadsteads  and 
harbors  — the  points  and  capes  fit  for  forts  and  batteries,  wliich  may  de- 
fend the  accessible  parts ;  the  adjacent  islands,  which  may  serve  as  ad- 
vanced works  to  form  barriers  against  the  attempts  of  an  enemy ;  the 
gulfs,  the  bays,  the  roads,  the  ports  —  the  nature  of  the  winds  required  to 
enter  or  leave  these  ports,  the  nature  and  advantages  of  which  may  be 
pointed  out  —  the  time  of  tide  most  favorable  for  entering  the  ports,  &c. 

—  the  dangers  to  be  met  — the  obstacles  to  be  surmounted— the  actual 
state  of  the  forts  which  protect  the  coast  —  the  batteries,  the  guard-houses, 
and  the  artillery  in  them ;  if  there  be  rivers  emptying  themselves  on  the 
coasts,  the  tides  are  apt  to  alter  their  channel ;  an  account  may  be  given 
of  this  influence,  &c. 

Forests  and  Woods.  Their  situation  —  their  extent  5  the  kinds  of 
trees  of  which  they  are  composed,  whether  fit  for  fuel  or  for  timber  — 
their  extent  —  then-  magnitude  ;  is  the  ground  of  the  forest  level  or  hilly , 
from  whence  do  the  roads  come,  and  whither  do  they  lead  —  their  quality 

—  the  nature  of  the  ground  around  them  —  are  they  near  fields,  meadows, 
ravines,  hills,  mountains,  rivers  — the  streams,  marshes,  springs,  dwel 
lings,  &c.,  near  them  —  the  distance  of  all  these  objects  from  the  borders 
of  the  wood  or  forest ;  the  roads  which  intersect  them,  and  the  swampa 
which  divide  them. 

HoTiSES.  Their  situations  — style  of  architecture  —  the  ground  which 
they  occupy  —  the  mode  in  which  they  are  built  —  the  materials  of  which 
they  are  composed— the  color  given  them  by  nature  or  art  — are  they 
old  or  new  — the  indications  of  age  —  moss-grown,  ivy-hung,  black  with 
time  —  appendages  connected  with  ancient  customs  —  their  associations 

—  the  improvements  of  modern  art  —  additional  conveniences,  &c. 

Level  Country..  Its  hedges,  ditches,  villages,  buildings,  brooks, 
canals,  marshes,  roads,  rivers,  bridges,  &c. 

Mountains.  Their  position— their  slopes  in  front  and  rear  — tli 
means  of  reaching  their  summits  — the  nature  of  the  ground  — its  form 
— are  they  covered  with  wood  or  with  bare  rocks — their  height  —  their 


*  In  sandy  countries,  and  those  filled  with  brushwood,  there  are  many 
marshes  covered  with  water  during  the  winter,  which  arc  _  almost  dry  ni 
gummer.  In  the  -^vinter  they  are  impassable,  and  are  to  befhistrusted,  even 
in  smnmer,  after  long  rains. 

15 


170 


AIDS  TO  EJfGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


fertility— pastures,  fodder,  vegetation,  dwellings,  towns,  TiUages,  castles 
woi-kshoijs,  roads,  paths,  &c. 

EivEEs.  Do  they  branch  off,  or  continue  in  one  undivided  stream*  — 
where  do  they  rise  —  whither  do  they  flow  — what  i»  the  nature  of  the 
couutiy  thi-ough  which  they  flow  —  the  quahtv  of  the  water  —  clear,  spark 
hng,  transparent,  thick,  muddy,  turbid  — mfeed  with  eddies  and  countei 
currents  —  with  or  without  falls  —  salt  or  fresh,  sweet  or  brackish  —  cold 
or  warm  —  safe  for  bathing,  or  dangerous  —  the  manufactories  moved  bi 
the  water  — the  canals  ninning  from  or  into  it  — the  sti-eams,  brooks 
rivulets,  or  other  rivers  that  supply  it,  <S:c. 

Villages.  Their  situation  —  the  number  of  fires  or  chimneys  in  oper 
ation  —  the  nature  of  the  soil  —  the  quantity  and  quahty  of  the  produce  - 
the  occupation  of  the  inhabitants — their  markets— the  neighborhood  which 
frequents  them  — the  beasts  of  burden,  the  flocks,  the  beeves  and  poultry 
they  possess  —  the  architecture,  or  style  in  which  the  buildings,  houses 
barns,  and  sheep-cotes  are  built  — the  position  of  the  church  and  burydng 
ground  —  the  blacksmith's  shop  —  whether  surrounded  by  walls,  by 
bushes,  by  ditches,  or  palisades  —  the  water  and  \nnd  mills,  t 


*  Elvers  which  divide  into  several  branches,  form  islands  and  peninsulas 
The  rivers  themselves,  thus  divided,  are  apt  to  change  their  channels  at 
every  flood. 

t  In  the  description  of  natural  scenery,  it  will  be  well  for  tne  student  to 
caU  to  memory  those  beautiful  lines  of  Cowper . 


"  Nor  rural  sights  alone,  but  r7iral  sounds 
Exhilarate  the  spirits,  and  restore 
The  tone  of  languid  nature.    Mighty  wiyids, 
That  sweep  the  skht  of  some  far-spreadmo-  v 
Of  ancient  growth,  make  music  not  unlike 
The  dash  of  Ocean  on  his  winding  shore, 
And  lull  the  spirit,  while  they  fill  the  mind, 


And  all  their  leaves  fast  fluttering  all  at  once. 
Nor  less  composure  Avaits  upon  the  roar 
Of  distant  floods  ;  or  on  the  softer  voice 
Of  7ieig/ibounng  fo2intain  ;  or  of  rills,  that  slip 
Through  the  cleft  rock,  and  chiming  as  they  ftiU 
Upon  loose  pebbles,  lose  themselves  at  length 
In  matted  grass,  that  with  a  livelier  green° 
Betrays  the  secret  of  their  silent  course. 

Nature  inanimate  employs  sweet  sounds  ; 
But  ayiimated  nature  sweeter  still, 
To  soothe  and  satisfy  the  human  ear. 
Ten  thoiLsand  vjarblers  cheer  the  day,  and  one 
The  live-long  night.    Nor  these  alone,  whose  notes 
Nice  fingered  art  must  emulate  in  vain  ; 
But  cawing  rooks,  and  kites  that  swim  sublime, 
In  still  repeated  circles,  screaming  loud  : 
The  jay,  the  jpye,  and  e'en  the  boding  owl, 
That  hails  the  rising  moon,  have  charms  for  me. 
Sounds  inhannonious  in  themselves,  and  harsh. 
Yet  Jftard  in  scenes  where  peace  forever  reigns, 
And  only  there,  plea&e  highly  for  their  sake." 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


171 


The  particulai-s  which  have  now  been  mentioned  as  suggestive  of  ideas, 
will  undoubtedly  aid  the  student,  and  enable  him  to  coinbme  what  ad- 
dresses itself  to  the  eye  with  that  which  suggests  itself  to  the  imagmation, 
in  his  endeavors  to  make  verbal  pictures  of  the  beauties  of  nature.  Ihe 
nature  and  variety  of  such  particulars  must  necessarily  be  dependent  on 
the  character  of  the  object  to  be  described. 

J£  an  individual  sensible  object  is  to  be  described,  the  ques- 
tions which  naturally  arise,  and  which  should  most  of  them  be 
answered  in  the  description,  are  as  follows : 

Wliere  is  it  ? 
Who  made  it  ? 
What  is  it  made  of? 
Is  it  old  or  new  1 
What  was  it  made  for  ? 

How  is  it  adapted  for  the  pm-poses  for  which  it  was  made  1 
Is  it  beneficial  or  prejudicial  to  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  man 
kind? 

Are  its  effects  universal  or  particular  1 

Its  divisions  and  parts  ? 

Its  dimensions,  form,  and  color  1 

Does  it  produce,  or  is  it  connected  with  any  sounds  ? 

How  is  it  constructed  1 

How  does  it  strike  the  eye  1 

What  are  its  resemblances  or  its  differences  1 

How  does  it  appear  from  different  positions  ? 

In  addition  to  these  questions,  the  student  must  call  to  mind 
what  others  would  naturally  arise  in  the  mind  of  any  one,  de- 
sirous of  exact  and  particular  information  with  regard  to  the 
subject  of  his  description,  and  endeavor  fully  to  answer  every 
such  question  in  his  written  exercise. 

In  the  description  of  persons,  an  entirely  different  set  of 
questions  will  suggest  the  proper  answers,  to  wluch  the  des- 
cription should  be  a  full  reply. 

What  is  the  personal  appearance,  complexion,  stature,  figure,  &C.5 
h3.nds,  arms,  limbs,  eyes,  &c.  ? 

What  featm-e  is  most  prominently  conspicuous  1 

The  expression  of  the  countenance  1  -,       i  j 

Is  the  individual  remarkable  for  manly  beauty ;  or  illy  made,  awkward, 
und  ungraceful "?  ,       ,      ,       ,  ■    v  v 

What  is  the  appearance  of  his  chest,  shoulders;  length  of  his  hmbs, 
style  of  his  dress  ?  ^.  ,       .  ■ 

What  are  his  habits,  his  age  ;  what  graces,  accomphshments,  or  attain 
ments  has  he  ?  ,         ,  •  •  x 

What  is  his  moral  character  —  his  intellectual  5  who  are  his  associates ; 
vrhat  influence  have  they  vrrought  upon  him  1 

Tor  what  virtues  or  vices  is  he  particularly  noted  ? 


172 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


^  In  the  rlescriptions  of  persons  of  the  other  sex,  such  ques- 
tions may  be  a  little  Taried,  and  answered  as  in  the  following 
examples : 


DESCEIPTIOX  OF  PERSOisS. 


Exam-pie  Ist 

DESCEIPTIOX  OF  ^lAET  QUEEN  OF  SC0TT3. 

The  turbulence  of  the  times,  the  rancor  of  partv  rase,  and  the  medium 
ot  prejudice  or  paniahtv,  through  which  everA- object  m  those  periods  was 
beheld,  render  it  difficult  to  form  a  just  opinion  of  the  character  of  [Mary 
Her  personal  accomplishments  and  the  gi-aces  which  distins^shed  her 
as  a  womam  are  admitted  by  aU  parties :  respecting  these,  therefore,  there 
can  be  no  dispute.    Her  stature  rose  to  the  maiestic.  her  form  was  ele- 
gant and  her  hands  and  arms  distinguished  for  theu-  delicacy  and  beauty. 
Her  hair  was  black  though,  in  the  "fashion  of  the  times,  she  frequently 
adorned  herseh'in  boiTowed  locks,  and  of  various  colors.'  Her  eves  were 
dark  gray,  and  her  complexion  remarkably  fine.    She  walked. '  danced, 
and  rode,  with  equal-  grace.    She  possessed  a  taste  for  music ;  she  plared 
upon  the  lute  with  skill,  and  sung  melodiously.    Towards  the  conclusion 
of  her  life,  she  began  to  grow  corpulent,  while  confinement  and  bad  ac- 
commodation brought  upon  her  a  rheumatic  disorder,  which  deprived  her 
of  the  use  of  her  limbs.    Her  manners  were  afiable  and  insinuating,  dio-- 
mtied  and  sprightly.    She  spoke  eloquently,  and  wi-ote  with  ease  and 
elegance.    Her  temper  was  wann,  and  her  heart  affectionate.  She 
loved  flattery,  and  beheld  the  effects  of  her  beautv  with  pleasiire.    If  she 
had  acquii-ed  the  power  of  dissembling  her  sentiments  in  the  refined  and 
mtngmng  comt  of  Prance,  her  natirre  was  nevertheless  frank  and  indis- 
posed to  suspicion.    Her  piety  was  fervent  and  sincere;  her  talents,  if  not 
of  the  highest,  were  undoubtedly  of  a  superior  order :  and  the  resolution 
and  courage  which  she  manifested  at  her  death,  are  titily  worthy  of  ad- 
mii-ation.    A  long  series  of  successive  soitows  bespeak,  with  few  excep- 
tions, some  imprudence  in  the  sufferer ;  the  misfortunes  of  Mary,  both 
in  degree  and  dm-ation.  exceeded  the  common  measure  of  human  calami- 
ties, and  even  render  the  distresses  of  fiction  comparatively  faint.  The 
vicissitudes  of  her  life  have  afforded  a  fine  and  fruitful  subject  for  the 
tragic  muse.    Xo  man,  says  Brantome,  ever  beheld  her  without  admira- 
tion and  love ;  no  one  will  read  her  history  without  pity  and  scrrow.  * 


*  All  writers  agree  in  representing  Mary  of  Scotland  as  distinguished  for 
pereonal  beauty.  But  on  no  subject,  perhaps,  do  mankind  differ  so  much 
as  in  their  ideas  of  female  beauty;  and  it  seems  to  be  wisely  ordered  by 
Providence  that  they  should  thus  differ,  Women  in  the  Hottentot  country- 
are  considered  beautiful  ia  proportion  to  the  size  of  their  ears,  the  flatness 
of  their  noses  and  the  projection  of  their  lips.  In  Otaheite  cornulencv  is 
the  constituent  element  of  loveliness  :  and  in  Ghiua,  small  feet^  cramped 
mto  absolute  deformity,  are  considered  an  indispensable  requisite  for  beauty. 
A  late  physiological  writer,  speaking  of  fem.'de  beauty,  says  :  '•  A  woman 
of  any  height,  from  the  petite  almost  to  the  gigantic,  may  be  perfectly  beau 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


173 


Example  2d. 

BERNARD  DE  ROHAN. 

1  will  attempt  to  paint  him,  to  the  eye  of  the  reader,  as  I  have  myself 
Been  him,  represented  by  the  hand  of  an  unkno-svn  artist,  in  one  of  the 


tiful ;  and  of  any  complexion,  from  the  darkest  brunette  to  the  fakest  lily. 
The  medium  height  is  generally  preferred  ;  but  the  complexion  i«  a  matter 
that  entirely  depends  on  individual  taste  —  the  same  person,  too,  would  bo 
liliely  to  waver  in  choice  between  the  darkly  beautiful  maidens  of  Spam 
and  the  seraphically  fair  daughters  of  Circassia.  Nevertheless,  though  the 
shades  of  complexion,  from  the  Spanish  olive  to  the  Circassian  white,  or  the 
varieties  of  altitude,  from  the  petite  Cleopatra  to  that  of  the  towermg  Rox 
ana,  matters  but  httle  ;  there  are  many  things  arbitrarily  essential  to  perfect 
beauty  in  woman."  "  I  shaU  describe,"  he  continues,  "  a  beautiful  woman, 
taking  her  at  the  medium  altitude,  which  is  generally  preferred." 

As  such  a  description  may  be  interesting  to  many  who  have  not  access 
to  the  original  work,  and  as  it  cannot  be  considered  wholly  out  of  place  in 
a  volume  professing  to  teach  the  art  of  description,  the  author  of  this  vol- 
mne  has,  with  some  hesitation,  ventured  here  to  present  it. 

"  Her  height  is  five  feet  five  inches ;  her  hair  is  of  any  color  that  agrees 
with  her  complexion  ;  her  forehead  is  rather  low,  and  as  free  from  freckle 
or  wrinkle  as  a  piece  of  Paphian  marble  ;  her  brows  are  dark,  arched,  nar- 
row, and  strongly  defined;  her  eves  are  large,  rather  languishing  than 
bright,  and  of  either  of  the  usual  colors ;  for  the  grey  eyes  of  Mary  of  Scot 
land  were  not  less  captivating  than  the  raven  orbs  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba; 
her  eye  lashes  are  dark  and  long ;  her  nose  is  a  mitigated  aquiline,  —  that 
is,  an  aquiline  curtailed  of  its  severity ;  her  lips  are  short  and  small,  and  yet 
withal  full  and  pouting ;  her  chin  is  very  slightly  developed ;  her  ears  are 
small,  thin,  and  with,  the  tip  on  a  hne  with  the  eyebrow  ;  her  complexion 
varies  with  the  emotions  of  her  mind,  and  the  blush  that  tinges  her  cheek 
is  delicate,  and  loses  itself  in  her  face,  so  as  to  indicate  no  perceptible  out- 
line ;  her  features  are  exactly  regular,  though  made  to  appear  otherwise  by 
the  ever-varying  expression  of  her  lips  and  eyes,  and  the  fluctuations  of  the 
rosy  tide  that  ebbs  and  flows  beneath  the  transparent  surface  of  her  skin ; 
her  smile  indicates  sweetness  of  disposition,  blended  with  a  gently-proud 
expression,  dictated  probably  by  the  consciousness  of  her  own  worth  and 
beauty ;  her  neck  is  flexible,  moderately  slender,  of  medium  length,  and 
pure  as  alabaster ;  the  fall  from  her  neck  to  her  shoulders  is  gradual  (like 
that  of  a  bird) ;  her  bust  is  a  gentle  swell,  so  clear  that  the  blue  veins  are 
visible ;  her  shoulders  almost  verge  on  broadness,  and  press  backwards ; 
her  waist  is  smaU,  but  not  too  taper ;  her  arms  are  rounded ;  her  hands 
delicately  small,  and  fingers  rather  long  and  tapered  ;  her  instep  is  high,  to 
secure  a  good  arch  to  the  foot,  which  adds  grace  in  walking,  and  her 
feet  are  as  small  as  they  can  possibly  be  without  subjecting  them  to  the 
character  of  diminutive." 

To  this  description  the  same  author  adds,  that  there  are  "  three  species 
of  female  beauty,  of  which  all  the  rest  are  varieties." 

No.  1.  Face  round,  eyes  soft  azure;  neck  rather  short;  shoulders  mod- 
erately boad  and  gently  rounded;  limbs  and  arms  tapering  and  dehcate; 
hands  and  feet  small ;  complexion,  rose  struggling  vi^ith  lily  ;  hair  luxuri- 
ant, flaxen  or  auburn ;  eyes  blue,  and  whole  figure  soft  and  easy. 

No.  2.    Oblong  face  ;  neck  long  and  tapering ;  shoulders  broad  and  deli 
eate,  without  beuag  angular ;  lunbs  and  arms  rather  long  and  tapering ;  feet 
13* 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COJIPOSITION. 


palaces  on  the  banks  of  the  Brenta.  He  was  in  person  about  the  middl« 
height,  rather  above  it  than  below,  and  at  this  period  was  not  more  than 
twenty-tlii-ee  years  of  age.  His  forehead  was  broad  and  fine,  with  short 
dark  hair  curhng  around  it;  Ms  features  were  small,  exceptino- the  eve 
and  brow,  the  former  of  wliich  was  large  and  full,  and  the  latter°stron4y 
marked.  The  mouth  was  very  handsome,  showing,  when  half  open°in 
speaking,  the  briUiant  white  teeth,  and  giving  to  the  whole  countenance  a 
ook  of  pla^-ful  gaiety;  but,  when  shut,  there  was  an  expression  of  much 
thoughtfulness,  approaching  perhaps  to  sternness,  about  it,  which  the 
rounded  and  somewhat  prominent  chin  confirmed.  The  upper  lip  was 
very  short;  but  on  either  side,  divided  in  the  middle,  was  a  short  black 
mustache,  not  overhanging  the  mouth,  but  raised  above  it ;  and  the  beard 
which  was  short  and  black,  hke  the  hair,  was  only  suffered  to  o-row  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  ornament,  but  not  to  encumber  the  chin. 

In  form  the  cavaHer  was  muscular,  and  poweifully  made  ;  his  breadth 
of  chest  and  shoulders  giving  the  appearance  of  a  more  advanced  period 
of  life  than  that  to  which  he  had  yet  anixed  *~Corse  De  Leon,  by  G.  P 
R.  James.  )  y  ^  • 


and  hands  rather  small ;  complexion  mostly  dark  ;  hair  abundant,  dark  and 
strong ;  and  the  whole  figure  precise,  striking,  and  brilliant, 
f  n   ;  ^'    yj.?-}       '  ^^g^i'  P'^l^'  intellectual  forehead  ;  eye,  expressive  and 
full  of  sensibility,  also  mdicating  modesty  and  dignity;  movements  charac 
tenzed  by  grace  and  elegance. 

*  In  a  note  on  page  172  is  presented,  in  a  quotation  from  a  late  physio- 
logical writer,  the  description  of  a  beautiful  woman.  The  same  author 
thus  describes  a  specimen  of  masculine  beauty : 

"A  fine  looking  man,  (the  w-ord  handsome  detracts  from  the  idea  of 
beauty  in  the  male  sex),  is  above  the  medium  height,  but  considerably  un- 
der the  colossal ;  (about  five  feet  ten  inches  is  the  perfection  of  altitude); 
his  forehead  is  high  and  rather  square  ;  his  back  head,  is  well  rounded,  but 
not  too  fuU ;  his  eyes  are  dark,  bright,  and  fairly  set  in  thek  sockets  — 
neither  tending  to  recede  nor  to  protrude  ;  his  hair  inclines  to  a  curl ;  his 
eyebrows  are  rather  square  than  bushy,  and  leave  a  space  of  about  three 
Quarters  of  an  inch  between  their  inward  extremities  ;  his  nose  is  a  medium 
between  Koman  and  aquiline ;  his  cheek  bones  are  not  ^  rominent,  but  still 
well  defined  ;  his  cheeks  neither  lank  nor  so  rounded  as  to  indicate  fatness 
or  inflation ;  his  mouth  moderately  small ;  his  lips  fii-m,  compact,  but  not 
thin  ;  his  whiskers  are  well  back  on  his  cheek;  his  complexion  is  uniform, 
between  brown  and  fair,  with  a  slight  tendency  to  a  blush,  but  not  suffil 
cient  to  warrant  him  m  being  called  rosy  cheeked;  and  the  whole  counte- 
nance, weU  or  even  strongly  marked  ;  for  a  smooth,  round  face,  where  the 
features  are  ail  regular,  and  without  any  characteristic  for  a  limner  to  fasten 
on,  IS  incompatible  with  manly  beautv.  Then  his  neck  is  of  moder- 
ate length  and  inclines  to  thickness  ;  his  throat  is  free  from  aU  protuber 
ance  commonly  called  ^the  apple  of  Eve;'  his  breast  is  fairlv  full ;  his 
shoulders  square,  but  not  abraptly  so,  and  sufficientlv  broad  to^ust  over- 
hang his  hips  ;  ms  arms  are  of  a  length  to  leave  about" eight  inches  between 
the  tips  of  his  middle  fingers  and  his  knees;  there  is  a  Gradual  decrease  in 
wards  from  the  hips  and  shoulder  to  the  waist ;  his  back  is  free  from  the 
least  tendency  to  roundness,  but  is  not  thrown  verv  much  to  the  rear ;  his 
iimbs  are  full,  but  not  clumsy  ;  his  j^oints  small ;  the  calves  of  the  legs  so  that 
they  just  touch,  without  pressing  against  each  other ;  his  shin  rather  slen- 
aer,  his  ankle  small ;  ms  instep  high  :  and  his  foot  slightly  hollowed,  and  of 
a  size  corresponding  with  his  height ;  for,  too  smaU  a  foot  interferes  with 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  175 


Example  Zd.  . 

THE  ELEPHANT. 

The  elephant,  a  native  of  Asia  and  Africa,  is  the  largest,  the  strongest, 
the  most  sagacious,  and  the  most  docile  of  all  wild  beasts.  The  usual 
height  of  tliis  unsightly  creature  is  from  eight  to  twelve  or  fourteen  feet. 
The  color  is  nearly  black ;  the  eyes,  which  are  very  small,  are  lively, 
bright,  and  expressive  ;  the  ears  are  broad,  and  much  longer,  m  propor- 
tion to  the  body,  than  those  of  the  ass. 

It  has  two  long  ivory  tusks,  thicker  toward  the  head  than  a  stout 
man's  arm,  and  a  trunk  which  it  can  contract  or  lengthen,  as  need  re- 
quires. The  latter  is  as  useful  to  the  animal  as  our  hands  are  to  us. 
With  this  singular  organ  it  can  take  up  the  smallest  object ;  it  serves 
tself  >vith  it ;  and,  in  case  of  an  attack,  fights  wth  it.  It  cag  also  untie 
Knots  of  ropes,  and  open  and  shut  gates. 

The  legs  of  this  stupendous  quadruped  are  like  columns  ot  trom 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  from  four  to  six  feet  high. 
The  feet  are  short,  and  di\'ided  into  five  toes  each,  and  are  armed  with 
nails  of  a  horny  substance,  but  which  are  so  covered  with  skin,  that  they 
are  scarcely  visible.  . 

The  elephant,  in  a  state  of  nature,  is  neither  fierce  nor  mischievous.  It 
ig  peaceable,  mHd,  and  brave  ;  and  exerts  its  powers  only  m  its  own 
defence,  or  in  defence  of  those  of  its  own  kind,  with  which  it  is  social  and 
friendly. 

Example  Ath 

NATURAL  SCENERY. 

Lono-  projecting  reefs  of  rocks,  extending  under  water,  and  only  evinc- 
ing their  existence  by  here  and  there  a  peak  entirely  bai'e,  or  by  the 
breakers  which  foamed  over  those  that  were  partially  covered,  rendered 
KnockAvinnock  bay  dreaded  by  pilots  and  ship-masters.  The  crags  which 
rose  between  the  beach  and  the  main  land  to  the  height  of  tAvo  or  three 
hundred  feet,  aff-orded  in  then- crevices  shelter  for  unnumbered  sea  fowl, 
in  situations  seemingly  secured  by  their  dizzy  height  from  the  rapacity  ot 


that  elasticity  of  step,  and  firmness  of  carriage,  so  essential  in  making  up 
the  perfect  '  ^o?ii  msewi^/e '  of  a  well-proportioned  man." 

T  ^.1  •    i.:  f  r.^^c  -fT^Q  cf,ir1o-nf  -nrill  fin  wpll  tf)  rP.Tftl'  tO  What  IS  SaiU 


ur  reserved,  &c. ;  speech,  elegant,  eloquent,  &c. ;  person,  thm  or  spare  fleshy 
or  corpulent;  temper,  warm  and  affectionate;  nature,  frank  and  indis- 
posed to  suspicion,  &c.  Notice  may  also  be  taken,  as  occasion  requires,  ot 
such  particulars  as  the  following:  resolution,  courage,  effects  ot  an'  ana 
exercise,  or  confinement  and  exclusion  from  the  air,  on  personal  appear- 
ance, —  series  of  sorrows  as  causing  imprudence,  constant  success  as  pio- 
ducing  temeritv,  — misfortunes  in  degree  and  duration  exceexhng  the  com 
mon  measure  of  human  calamity,  rendering  the  distresses  ot  fiction  lamt, 
&c.,  &c.,  &c. 


176  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

S!?;!.-'^^''"^  of  these  wild  tribes,  with  the  instinct  which  sends  them  to 

It  Yi^'^^T^-^  '^^""^  T'"''  ""^'^       ^"gi^g  towards  their  nests 
with  the  shrill  and  dissonant  clang  which  announcSs  fear  and  disquietude. 

t  K  i^T^®^^""^  almost  totally  obscured  ere  he  had  alto- 
gether sunk  below  the  horizon,  and  an  early  and  lurid  shade  of  darkness 

to  arise  but  its  wild  and  moaning  sound  was  heard  for  some  time,  and 
wLflfn  r'^?^''''^^^''^^^  ''''  ^  ^^'^  sea,  before  the  gale 

n  rf.  /  If 1        ^^'^  d^^k  and  threatening, 

if  i  .  '  '^'^i^  m  jaipr  ridges,  and  sink  in  deeper  furrows,  forming 
waves  that  rose  high  m  foam  upon  the  breakers,  or  burst  upon  the  beach 
with  a  sound  resembhng  distant  thunder.— Antiquary,  Vol  Lp.  72. 

.Example  5th. 

^  NATURAL  SCENERY. 

Cities  and  viUages  w^re  scattered  over  hill  and  vaUey,  with  cultirated 
environs  blooming  a^-ound  them,  all  giving  token  of  a  dense  and  indus- 
trious population.    In  the  centre  of  this  brilliant  circumference  stood  the 

^'^''^  of  pyi-amids  and  temples,  at- 
tracting the  eye  of  the  soldier  from  every  other  object,  as  he  wound  round 
the  borders  of  the  lake.  Every  inch  of  ground  which  tlie  soldiers  trod 
wasfanuliartothem;  familiar  as  the  scenes  of  childhood,  though  mth 
very  different  associations,  for  it  had  been  written  on  then-  memories  in 
characters  of  blood  On  the  right  rose  the  hill  of  Montezuma,  crowned 
by  the  teocalh,  under  the  roof  of  Avhich  the  shattered  rehcs  of  the  army 
had  been  gathered  on  the  day  followmg  the  flight  from  the  ca^^itol.  In 
ront  lay  the  city  of  Tacuba,  through  whose  inhospitable  sti^ets  they 
had  hurried  m  fear  and  consternation ;  and  away  to  the  east  of  it 
fll  pfl       ™^^^^^^ol:^  causeway.— Presco«'s  Conquest  of  Mexico,  Vd. 

Example  Qtli. 

NATURAL  SCENEEY. 

^v^i^^^i  cautiously  forward,  straining  their  vision  to  pierce  the 

think  gloom  of  the  forests,  where  their  wily  foe  might  be  Im-king.  "  But 
they  saw  no  living  thmg,  except  only  the  wild  inhabitants  of  the  woods 
and  flocks  of  the  zopohte,  the  voracious  vulture  of  the  country,  which  in 
anticipation  of  a  bloody  banquet,  hung  like  a  troop  of  evH  spuits,  on  the 
march  of  the  army.  j.  r      ?  « 

As  they  descended,  the  Spaniards  felt  a  sensible  and  most  welcoma 
change  in  the  atmosphere.  The  character  of  the  vegetation  changed  with 
It  ;  and  the  tunereal  pme,  their  only  companion  of  late,  gave  way  to  the 
sturdy  oak,  to_  the  sycamore,  and  lower  down,  to  the  graceful  pepper 
tree,  mmglmg  its  red  hemes  with  the  dark  foliage  of  the  forest;  while 
m  still  lower  depths,  the  gaudy-colored  creepers  might  be  seen  flinching 
their  gay  blossoms  over  the  branches,  and  telling  of  a  softer  and  more 
luxurious  chmate. 

At  length,  the  army  emerged  on  an  open  level,  where  tJie  eye,  unob. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


177 


Btructed  by  intervening  wood  or  hill-top,  could  range,  far  and  wide,  ovei 
the  Valley  of  Mexico.  There  it  lay,  bathed  in  the  golden  sunshine, 
stretched  out,  as  it  were,  in  slumber,  in  the  arms  of  the  giant  of  hills, 
which  clustered,  like  a  phalanx  of  guardian  genii,  around  it.* —  Conquest 
of  Mexico,  Vol.  II,  p.  463. 

From  tlie  same  source  from  which  the  preceding  extract  was 
taken,  the  following  personal  description  has  been  borrowed. 

HERNANDO  CORTES. 

Hernando  "  Cortes  at  this  time  was  thirty-three,  or  perhaps  thirty-four 
years  of  age.  In  stature  he  was  rather  above  the  middle  size.  His  com- 
plexion was  pale,  and  his  large  dark  eye  gave  an  expression  of  gravity  to 
his  countenance,  not  to  be  expected  in  one  of  his  cheerful  temperament. 
His  figure  was  slender,  at  least  until  later  life ;  but  his  chest  was  deep,  hia 
shoulders  broad,  his  frame  muscular  and  well  proportioned.  It  presented 
the  union  of  agility  and  vigor,  which  qualified  him  to  excel  in  fencing- 
horsemanship,  and  the  other  generous  exercises  of  chivalry.  In  his  diet 
he  was  temperate,  careless  of  what  he  ate,  and  drinking  little ;  while,  to 
toil  and  privation  he  seemed  perfectly  indifferent.  His  dress,  for  he  did 
not  disdain  the  impression  produced  by  such  adventitious  aids,  was  such 
as  to  set  otF  his  handsome  person  to  advantage ;  neither  gaudy  nor  strik- 
ing, but  rich.  He  wore  few  ornartTents,  and  usually  the  same ;  but  these 
were  of  great  price.  His  manners  frank  and  soldierlike,  concealed  a  most 
cool  and  calculating  spirit.  With  his  gayest  humor  there  mingled  a  settled 
air  of  resolution,  which  made  those  who  approached  him  feel  they  must 
obey ;  and  which  infused  something  like  awe  into  the  attachment  of  hia 
most  devoted  followers.  Such  a  combination,  in  which  love  was  tempered 
by  authority,  was  the  one  probably  best  calculated  to  inspire  devotion  in 
the  rough  and  turbulent  spirits  among  whom  his  lot  was  to  be  cast." 


*  The  introduction  of  figurative  language  in  descriptive  writing,  Af  nolP' 
too  luxuriantly  indulged,  adds  much  to  the  beauty  and  animation  of  the 
style.  The  student  will  not  fail  to  admire  the  beautiful  figure  here  introduced 
from  one  of  the  most  elegant  historical  writers  of  any  age  or  country.  Mr. 
Prescott,  in  the  work  from  which  the  extract  above  was  taken,  has  conferred 
a  favor  on  the  republic  of  letters,  which  will  hand  him  down  to  posterity  as 
the  modern  "  Dulcis  et  candidus  et  fusus  Herodotus.''''  The  same  remark 
that  has  been  made  in  relation  to  the  Father  of  History,  may  be  applied 
with  equal  truth  and  justice  to  the  author  of  "  The  Conquest  of  Mexico.'''' 
*'  His  style  abounds  with  elegance,  ease,  and  sweetness ;  and  if  there  is  any 
of  the  fabulous  or  incredible,  the  author  candidly  informs  the  reader  that 
is  introduced  on  the  authority  of  others."  They  who  are  not  attracted  by 
the  thrilling  nature  of  the  incidents  which  he  relates,  will  be  captivated  by 
the  glowing  colors  in  which  they  are  described,  the  purity  and  animation 
of  his  style  the  witchery  he  has  woven  around  his  subject,  and  the  won- 
derful skill  with  which  he  has  thrown  into  a  connected  narrative  a  mass  of 
details,  which  with  indefatigable  industry  he  has  tithed  from  a  great  variety 
of  authors,  ofteh  at  variance  with  one  another,  and  not  unfrequently  at  issue 
with  themselves.  The  pride  with  which  an  American  pei'uses  his  works, 
naturally  breaks  forth  into  the  apostrophe,  "  Perge  raodo,  et  qua  te  via  duci* 
dirige  gj'essum." 


178 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


The  character  of  Cortes  seems  to  have  undergone  some 
change  with  change  of  circumstances  ;  or,  to  speak  more  cor- 
rectly, the  new  scenes  in  which  he  was  placed  called  forth 
qualities  which  before  were  dormant  in  his  bosom.  There 
are  some  hardy  natures  that  require  the  heats  of  excited  action 
to  unfold  their  energies;  Hke  the  plants,  which,  closed  to  the 
mild  influence  of  a  temperate  latitude,  come  to  their  full 
growth,  and  give  forth  their  fruits  only  in  the  burning  atmos- 
phere of  the  tropics.  Such  is  the  portrait  left  to  us  by  his 
contemporaries  of  this  remarkable  man. 

The  examples  which  have  now  been  introduced  are  deemed 
sufficient,  both  in  variety  and  extent,  to  introduce  the  student 
to  descriptive  writing.  The  attentive  perusal  of  the  examples 
given,  with  careful  attention  to  the  preliminary  hints  and  ob- 
servations, it  is  thought  will  furnish  considerable  aid  in  this 
department  of  composition. 


Lxni. 

NAERATION  AKD  DESCRIPTION  UNITED. 

That  the  student  may  perceive  how  much  is  added  to  the 
beauty  and  the  interest  of  a  narration  by  the  union  of  des- 
cription with  the  narrative,  the  following  model  is  presented, 
which  is  founded  on  the  simple  circumstance,  that  a  young 
man  in  a  feeble  state  of  health  is  called  home,  after  a  long 
absence,  to  be  present  at  the  death-bed  of  his  mother.  The 
student  will  observe  how  beautifully  many  of  the  particulars 
presented  in  the  list  in  the  preceding  exercises  are  interwoven 
with  the  narrative,  and  how  much  the  union  of  description 
with  the  narration  has  added  to  the  beauty  of  the  story. 

Example. 

In  looking  over  some  papers  of  a  deceased  acquaintance.  I  found  the 
follo^ng  fragment.  He  had  frequently  spoken  to  me  of  the  person  whom 
it  concerned,  and  who  had  been  his  school-fellow.  I  remember  well  his  one 
day  telling  me  that,  thinking  the  character  of  his  friend,  and  some  cu'cum- 
stances  in  his  life,  were  of  such  a  kind  that  an  interesting  moral  Httle  story 
might  be  made  from  them,  he  had  undertaken  it :  but,  considering  as  he 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


179 


was  going  on,  that  bringing  the  private  character  and  feelings  of  a  deceased 
friend  betbre  the  world,  was  something  like  sacrilege,  though  done  under  a 
fictitious  name,  he  had  stopped  soon  after  beginning  the  tale,  —  that  he 
had  laid  it  away  amongst  his  papers,  and  had  never  looked  at  it  again. 

As  the  person  it  concerns  has  been  a  long  time  dead,  and  no  relation  s_ur 
vives,  I  do  not  feel  that  there  can  be  any  impropriety  in  my  now  making 
it  public.  1  give  it  as  it  was  written,  though  evidently  not  revised  hy  my 
friend.  Though  hastily  put  together,  and  beginning  as  abraptly  as  it  ends, 
and  with  little  of  story  and  no  novelty  in  the  circumstances,  yet  there  is  a 
mournful  tenderness  in  it,  wliich,  I  trust,  will  interest  others  in  some  por- 
tion as  it  did  me.   


"  The  sun  not  set  yet,  Thomas  ?  "  "  Not  quite.  Sir.  It  blazes  through 
the  trees  on  the  hill  yonder,  as  if  their  branches  were  all  on  fire." 

Arthur  raised  himself  heavily  forward,  and  with  his  hat  still  over  his 
brow,  turned  his  glazed  and  dim  eyes  towards  the  setting  sun.  It  was  only 
the  night  before  that  he  had  heard  his  mother  was  ill,  and  could  survive 
but  a  day  or  two.  He  had  lived  nearly  apart  from  society,  and,  being  a  lad 
of  a  thoughtful,  dreamy  mind,  had  made  a  world  to  himself.  His  thoughts 
and  feehngs  were  so  much  in  it,  that,  except  in  relation  to  his  own  home, 
there  were  the  same  vague  and  strange  notions  in  his  brain  concerning  the 
state  of  things  surrounding  him,  as  we  have  of  a  foreign  land. 

The  main  feeUng  which  this  self-made  world  excited  in  him  was  love, 
and,  like  most  of  his  age,  he  had  formed  to  himself  a  being  suited  to_  his 
own  fancies.  This  was  the  romance  of  life,  and  though  men,  with  minds 
like  his,  make  imagination  to  stand  oftentimes  in  the  place  of  real  exist- 
ence, and  to  take  to  itself  as  deep  feeling  and  concern,  yet  in  domestic  re- 
lations, which  are  so  near,  and  usual,  and  private,  they  feel  longer  and 
more  deeply  than  those  who  look  upon  their  homes  as  only  a  better  part  of 
the  world  to  which  they  belong.  Indeed,  in  affectionate  and  good  men  of  a 
visionary  cast,  it  is  in  some  sort  only  realizing  their  hopes  and  desires,  to 
turn  them  homeward.  Arthur  felt  that  it  was  so,  and  he  loved  his  house- 
hold the  more  that  they  gave  him  an  earnest  of  one  day  realizing  all  his 
hopes  and  attachments. 

Arthur's  mother  was  peculiarly  dear  to  him,  in  having  a  character  so 
much  like  his  own.  For  though  the  cares  and  attachments  of  Ufe  had  long 
ago  taken  place  of  a  fanciful  existence  in  her,  yet  her  natural  turn  of  mind 
was  strong  enough  to  give  to  these  something  of  the  romance  of  her  dispo 
sition.  This  had  led  to  a  more  than  usual  openness  and  intimacy  between 
Arthur  and  his  mother,  and  now  brought  to  his  remembrance  the  hours 
they  had  sat  together  by  the  firelight,  when  he  listened  to  her  mild  and 
nManoiioly  voice,  as  she  spoke  of  v/liat  she  had  undergone  at  the  loss  of 
her  parents  and  husband.  Her  gentle  rebuke  of  his  faults,  her  affectionate 
Jook  of  approval  when  he  had  done  well,  her  care  that  he  should  be  a  just 
Pman,  and  her  m.otherly  anxiety  lest  the  world  should  go  hard  with  him,  all 
crowded  into  his  mind,  and  he  thought  that  every  worldly  attachment  was 
hereafter  to  be  a  vain  thing. 

He  had  passed  the  night  between  violent,  tumultuous  grief,  and  numb 
insensibiUty.  Stepping  mto  the  carnage,  with  a  slow,  weak  motion,  like 
one  who  was  quitting  his  sick  chamber  for  the  first  time,  he  began  his 
journey  homeward.  As  he  lifted  his  eyes  upward,  the  few  stars  that  were 
here  and  ttiere  over  the  sky  seemed  to  look  down  in  pity,  and  shed  a  re 
ligious  and  healing  light  upon  him.  But  they  soon  went  out,  one  after 
another,  and  as  the  last  faded  from  his  imploring  sight,  it  v/as  as  if  every  thing 
good  and  holy  had  forsaken  him.  The  faint  tint  in  the  east  soon  became  _  a 
ruddy  glow,  and  the  sun,  shooting  upward,  burst  over  every  living  thing  ia 
full  glory.  The  sight  went  to  Arthur's  sick  heart,  as  if  it  were  in  mockery 
of  big  uuaery. 


180  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Leaning  buck  in  his  carriage,  wltli  his  hand  over  his  eyes,  he  v/as  carried 
along,  liarclly  sensible  it  was  day.  The  old  servant,  Thomas,  who  was  sit- 
ting by  his  side,  went  on  talking  in  a  low,  monotous  tone  ;  hut  Arthur  only 
heard  something  sounding  in  his  ears,  scarcely  heeding  that  it  was  a  human 
voice.  He  had  a  sense  of  wearisomeness  from  the  rnotion  of  the  carriage, 
but  in  all  things  else  the  day  passed  as  a  melancholy  dream. 

Almost  the  first  words  Arthur  spoke  were  those  I  have  mentioned.  As 
lie  looked  out  upon  the  setting  sun,  he  shuddered  through  his  whole  frame, 
!ind  then  became  sick  and  pale.  He  thought  he  knew  the  hill  near  him; 
and,  as  they  wound  round  it,  some  peculiar  old  trees  appeared,  and  he  was 
in  a  few  minutes  in  the  midst  of  the  scenery  near  his  home.  The  river  be- 
fore him  reflecting  the  rich  evening  sky,  looked  as  if  poured  out  from  a 
molten  mine.  The  birds,  gathering  in,  were  shooting  across  each  other, 
bursting  into  short,  gay  notes,  or  singing  their  evening  songs  in  the  trees. 
It  was  a  bitter  thing  to  find  all  so  bright  and  cheerful,  and  so  near  his  own 
home  too.  His  horses'  hoofs  struck  upon  the  old  wooden  bridge.  The 
sound  went  to  his  heart.  It  was  here  his  mother  took  her  last  leave  of  him, 
and  blessed  him. 

As  he  passed  through  the  village,  there  was  a  feeling  of  strangeness,  that 
every  thing  should  be  just  as  it  was  when  he  left  it.  There  was  an  unde- 
fined thought  floating  in  his  mind,  that  his  mother's  state  should  produce  a 
visible  change  in  all  that  he  had  been  famihar  with.  But  the  boys  were  at 
their  noisy  games  in  the  street,  the  laborers  returning,  talking  together, 
from  their  work,  and  the  old  m.en  sitting  quietly  at  their  doors.  He  con 
cealed  himself  as  well  as  he  could,  and  bade  Thomas  hasten  on. 

As  they  dreAV  near  the  house,  the  night  was  shutting  in  about  it,  and  there 
was  a  melancholy,  gusty  sound  in  the  trees.  Arthur  felt  as  if  approaching 
his  mother's  tomb.  He  entered  the  parlor.  All  was  as  gloomy  and  still  as 
a  deserted  house.  Presently  he  heard  a  slow,  cautious  step  over  head.  It 
was  in  his  mother's  chamber.  His  sister  had  seen  him  from  the  Avindow. 
She  hurried  down  and  threw  her  arm.s  about  her  brother's  neck,  without 
uttering  a  word.  As  soon  as  he  could  speak,  he  asked,  "  Is  she  alive  ?  "  — 
he  could  not  say,  my  mother.  '  She  is  sleeping,"  answered  his  sister,  "  and 
must  not  know  to-night  that  you  are  here  ;  she  is  too  weak  to  bear  it  now." 
"  I  will  go  look  at  her,  then,  while  she  sleeps,"  said  he,  drawing  his  hand 
kerchief  from  his  face.  His  sister's  sympathy  had  made  him  shed  the  first 
tears  which  had  fallen  from  him  that  day,  and  he  was  more  composed. 

He  entered  the  chamber  with  a  deep  and  still  awe  upon  him  ;  and  as  he 
drew  near  his  mother's  bed  side,  and  looked  on  her  pale,  placid,  and  mo- 
tionless face,  he  scarcely  dared  breathe,  lest  he  should  disturb  the  secret 
communion  that  the  soul  was  holding  with  the  world  into  which  it  was 
about  to  enter.  The  loss' that  he  was  about  suff"ering,  and  his  heavy  grief, 
v/ere  all  forgotten  m  the  feeling  of  a  holy  inspiration,  and  he  waG,  asH: 
were,  in  the  midst  of  invisible  spirits,  ascending  and  descending.  His 
mother's  lips  moved  slightly,  as  she  uttered  an  indistinct  sound.  He  drew  ^ 
back,  and  his  sister  went  near  to  her,  and  she  spoke.  It  was  the  same  ^ 
gentle  voice  which  he  had  known  and  felt  from  his  childhood.  The  exal- 
tation of  his  soul  left  him,  —  he  sunk  down,  —  and  his  misery  went  over 
him  like  a  flood. 

The  next  day,  as  soon  as  .his  mother  became  composed  enough  to  see 
liim,  Arthur  went  into  her  chamber.  She  stretched  out  her  feeble  hand, 
and  turned  towards  him,  with  a  look  that  blessed  him.  It  was  the  short 
struggle  of  a  meek  spirit.  She  covered  her  eyes  with  her  hand,  and  the 
tears  trickled  down  between  her  pale,  thin  fingers.  As  soon  as  she  became 
tranquil,  she  spoke  of  the  gratitude  she  felt  at  being  apared  to  see  him  be- 
fore sne  died. 

"  My  dear  mother,"  said  Ai-thur,  —  but  he  could  not  go  on.  His  voice 
was  choked,  his  eyes  filled  with  tears,  and  the  agony  of  his  soul  wae  visible 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


181 


in  his  face.  "  Do  not  be  so  afflicted,  Arthur,  at  the  loss  of  me.  We  ara 
not  to  part  for  ever.  Remember,  too,  how  comfortable  and  happy  you  have 
made  my  days.  Heaven,  I  know,  will  bless  so  good  a  son  as  you  have  been 
to  You  will  have  that  consolation,  my  son,  which  visits  but  a  few,  — 
yo^Rll  be  able  to  look  back  upon  your  past  conduct  to  me,  not  without 
pain  only,  but  with  a  holy  joy.  And  think,  hereafter,  of  the  peace 
of  mind  you  give  me,  now  that'l  am  about  to  die,  in  the  thought  that  I  am 
leavino-  your  sister  to  your  love  and  care.  So  long  as  you  live,  she  will 
find  you  a  father  and  brother  to  her."  She  paused  for  a  moment.  "  I  have 
always  felt  that  I  could  meet  death  with  composure  ;  but  I  did  not  know," 
she  said,  with  a  tremulous  voice,  her  lips  quivering,  — "  I  did  not  know 
how  hard  a  thing  it  would  be  to  leave  my  children,  till  now  that  the  hour 
has  come."  , 

After  a  little  while,  she  spoke  of  his  father,  and  said,  she  had  lived  with 
the  belief  that  he  was  mindful  of  her,  and  with  the  conviction,  which  grew 
stronger  as  death  approached,  that  she  should  meet  him  in  another  world. 
She  said  but  little  more,  as  she  grew  weaker  and  weaker  every  hour.  Ar 
thur  sat  by  in  silence,  holding  her  hand.  He  saw  that  she  was  sensible  he 
Avas  watching  her  countenance,  for  every  now  and  then  she  opened  her  dull 
eye,  and  looked  towards  him,  and  endeavored  to  smile. 

The  day  wore  slowly  away.  The  sun  went  down,  and  the  melancholy 
and  still  twilight  came  on.  Kothing  was  heard  but  the  ticking  of  the  watch, 
telling  him  with  a  resistless  power  that  the  hour  was  drawing  nigh.  He 
gasped,  as  if  under  some  invisible,  gigantic  grasp,  which  it  was  not  for  hu 
man  strength  to  struggle  against.  . 

It  was  now  quite  daa-k,  and  by  the  pale  light  of  the  night-lamp  m  the 
chimney  corner,  the  furniture  in  the  room  threw  huge  and  uncouth  figures 
over  the  walls.  All  was  unsubstantial  and  visionary,  and  the  shadowy 
ministers  of  death  appeared  gathering  round,  waiting  the  duty  of  the  hour 
appointed  them.  Arthur  shuddered  for  a  moment  with  superstitious  awe ;  but 
the  solemn  elevation  which  a  good  man  feels  at  the  sight  of  the  dying  took 
possession  of  him,  and  he  became  calm  again.  _ 

The  approach  of  death  has  so  much  which  is  exalting,  that  our  griet 
is  for  the  time,  forgotten.  And  could  one  who  had  seen  Arthur  a  few  hours 
before,  now  have  looked  upon  the  grave  and  grand  repose  of  his  countenance, 
he  would  hardly  have  known  him.  .         -,        ^  tt 

The  livid  hue  of  death  was  fast  spreading  over  his  mother  s  lace.  He 
stooped  forward  to  catch  the  sound  of  her  breathing.  It  grew  quick  and , 
faint  —  "  My  mother."  —  She  opened  her  eyes,  for  the  last  time,  upon  him, 
—  a  faint  flush  passed  over  her  cheek,  —  there  was  the  serenity  of  an  angel 
in  her  look,  —  her  hand  just  pressed  his.    It  Avas  all  over. 

His  spirit  had  endured  to  its  utmost.  It  sunk  down  from  its  unearthly 
heio-ht;  and  with  his  face  upon  his  mother's  pillow,  he  wept  like  a  child. 
He  "arose  with  a  violent  effort,  and  stepping  into  the  adjoining  chamber, 
spoke  to  his  aunt.  "  It  is  past,"  said  he.  "  Is  my  sister  asleep  —  Well, 
then,  let  her  have  rest ;  she  needs  it.'  He  then  went  to  his  own  chamber, 
and  shut  himself  in.  ^        .  .        .  j  i 

It  is  a  merciful  thing  that  the  intense  suffering  of  sensitive  minds  makes 
to  itself  a  relief.  Violent  grief  brings  on  a  torpor,  and  an  indistinctness, 
and  dimness,  as  from  long  watching.  It  is  not  till  the  violence  of  affliction 
has  subsided,  and  gentle  and  soothing  thoughts  can  find  room  to  mix  with 
our  sorrow,  and  holy  consolations  can  minister  to  us,  that  we  are  able  to 
know  fully  our  loss,  and  see  clearly  what  has  been  torn  away  from  our  af- 
fections.  It  A^^as  so  Avith  Arthur.  Unconnected  and  strange  thoughts,  with 
melancholy  but  half-formed  images,  Avere  floating  m  his  mind,  and 
noAv  and  then  a  gleam  of  Ught  Avould  pass  through  it,  as  if  he  had  been  m  a 
troubled  trance,  and  all  was  right  again.  His  worn  and  tired  leehngs  at 
last  found  rest  in  sleep 


182  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

been  famihar  w,th  when  it  was  all  life  and  motion,  seems  oriv  in  a  stote^  of 
ust  not  1  urg"lg     '°  '"^'^^  "        '»  ^""Vbefor^i 

&7e  ^b^Lrrar=eZ'i-^e  lit  sif  3 

It  is  not  enough  to  see  our  friends  die,  and  part  with  them  for  the  remam 
t W  . ^""^'^  r  °  ^^^t  ^^'^  ^^^11  hear^their  voices  ?o  moi^  and  th^t 

wnfh'I  •  us  again,  -  to  see  that  turning  to  coi^iptiorAvS 

was  but  just  now  alive,  and  eloquent,  and  beautiful  with  aU  thrseSsltions 
of  the  soul  Are  our  sorrows  so  sacred  and  peculiar  as  to  make  the  workl 
as  vam  y  to  us  and  the  men  of  it  as  strangers,  and  sLll\?  not  be 'ef^  n 
our  afflictions  for  a  few  hours  ?  Must  we  be  brought  out  at  such  a  time  to 
the  concerned  or  careless  gaze  of  those  we  know  nSt,  or  be  madfto  be?i  th« 

lorgeLic  anr  bnaii  A\e  not  be  suffered  a  Lttle  while  a  holv  and  hpilmi^ 
commumon  with  the  dead  ?  Must  the  kindx-ed  stillneL  andVoom  of  ouf 
dwelling  be  changed  for  the  solemn  show  of  the  nail  the  talk  of  ^hl 
passers-by,  and  the  broad  and  piercing  light  of  the  cmnmon  .un  9  Mm? 
the^c.remomes  of  the  world  wait  on  Veven  to  the  opTgr^ave^  /a^' 

bi.^IJlfnii     ^""^  '"^'^  ^'^^^  a  fi™  Step  and  fixed  eve  though 

his  whole  face  was  tremulous  with  the  struggle  within  him  He  went  °to 
his  sister,  and  took  her  arm  within  his.    The  beU  sti4kTits  heavv  un 

whoi'?Sfr^/'"v  i^'T^'f  He  felt  a  violent  beatin J  through 

his  whole  fiame,  Avhich  shook  him  that  he  reeled.  It  was  but  a  momentafv 
weakness.  He  moved  on,  passing  those  who  suiTounded  hiSi^  if  the? 
had  been  shadows.  While  he  followed  the  slow  hearse,  thei-e  was  a  vacan^ 
nJil^?  "^^^V^  'f^'^  "^^^^  ^^^hich  showed  Mm  Sardh  conscious 

of  what  was  before  nm.  His  spirit  was  with  his  mother's.  As  he  reacS 
the  grave  he  shrunk  back  and  turned  deadlv  pale ;  but   inkin^  his  £ead 

He  had  gone  through  aU  that  the  forms  of  society  reqiured  of  him 
For  as  pamrul  as  the  effort  was,  and  as  httle  suited  aslurfoi  ms  weie  To 
app^rto  thet^^^^^^^  subject  yet  he  could  not  do  any  thSL;  m  gS 

WrP^P^  ^^^^^^^^  ^rT^l^^il^^ 

left  to  himself,  the  greatness  of  his  loss  came  up  full  and  dSinctly  beS 

enferif  tlf'hmf^p' frnm^^^J'r.^-^^^  ^^'^^^  '^^^'"^^^  home.  When  he 
entered  the  hoube  from  which  his  mother  had  gone  for  ever  a  ^Pn^P  Z 
dreary  emptiness  oppressed  him,  as  if  his  verv  abfde  lad  beer  deserted  bv 
every  hvmg  thing.  He  walked  into  his  mother's  chambef  The  nL^^ 
bedstead,  and  the  chair  in  which  she  used  to  sit,  were  Si  that  was  eft  in 
the  room  As  he  threw  himself  back  into  the  chair,  he  groaned  in  the  bit 
emess  of  his  spmt.  A  feehng  of  forlornness  came  oVer  him  which  was  not 
to  be  reheved  by  tears.  She,  whom  he  had  watched  over  in  hi  dying  hour 


• 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


183 


^  and  whom  he  had  talked  to  as  she  lay  before  him  in  death,  as  if  she  could 
^  hear  and  answer  him,  had  gone  from  him.  Nothing  was  left  for  the  senses 
to  fasten  fondly  on,  and  time  had  not  yet  taught  him  to  think  of  her  only  as 
a  spir?t.  But  time  and  holy  endeavors  brought  this  consolation ;  and  the 
little  of  life  that  a  wasting  disease  left  him,  was  passed  by  him,  when  alone, 
in  thoughtful  tranquillity  ;  and  amongst  his  friends  he  appeared  with  that 
gentle  cheerfulness,  which,  before  his  mother's  death,  had  been  apart  ot 
his  nature.* 

Exercises. 

Narration  and  Description  may  now  be  united  in  the  history  of 

Elizabeth  of  England 
Arabella  Stewart 
Arabella  Johnson 
Washington 
Jay 

Marshall 
Eranklin 
Montezuma. 

To  the  historical  data  which  can  be  gleaned  from  any  authentic  source, 
the  student  may  be  permitted  to  add  fictitious  circumstances  of  his  own 

invention.  .       ^  i       -u  ^ 

In  the  same  manner,  he  may  present  notices  of  any  other  character 
which  may  occur  in  the  course  of  his  reading  or  observation.  He  may 
also  reverse  the  process  of  amplifying,  and  present  an  abridgement  of  the 
example. 


Moses 

Saul 

Elijah 

Elisha 

Daniel 

Judith 

Joshua 

Jepthah 


LXTV. 

EPISTOLARY  COREESPONDENCE,  OR  LETTER  WRITING,  t 

A  Letter  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  most  common,  as  well  as 
one  of  the  most  useful  forms  of  composition,  and  there  are  few, 
who  can  read  or  write  at  all,  who  are  not  frequently  called 


*  It  is  recommended  that  the  student  be  required  to  analyze  this  beauti- 
ful specimen  of  narration  united  with  description,  by  presenting  a  list  of  the 
particulars  which  enter  mto  the  narrative  and  descriptive  parts  respec 

5  is  generally  allowed,  that  epistolary  writing,  if  not  one  of  the  highest, 
is  one  of  the  most  difficult  branches  of  composition.  An  elegaM  letter  is 
much  more  rare  than  an  elegant  specimen  of  any  other  kind  of  writing.  It 
is  for  this  reason,  that  the  author  has  deviated  from  the  usual  order  prac 
tised  by  respectable  teachers,  who  give  epistolary  writing  the  first  place  id 


IS 4  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOX.  ^ 

apon  to  perform  it.  Under  the  head  of  Letter  TTriting,  it  ig 
iuieaded  in  this  exercise  to  inchide  all  the  fonns  of  epistolary 
correspondence,  whether  in  the  shape  of  billets,  notes,  formal 
letters,  or  ceremonious  cards,  &c.  It  is  proper  to  premise, 
:ha:,  whenever  a  letter  is  to  be  written,  regard  should  be  had 
to  the  usual  forms  of  complimentary  address,  to  the  date,  the 
superscription,  and  the  closing.  The  folding,  also,  of  the 
letter  should  not  be  disregarded.  If  it  be  true,  that  tribes 
form  the  principal  distinction  between  the  refined  and  the  un- 
refined," surely  those  trifles  deserve  some  sort  of  consideration. 

And,  fii'st,  it  is  to  be  observed,  that,  whenever  a  written 
communication  is  made  by  one  individual  to  another,  the 
usages  of  society  require  that  the  re/j/y  should  also  be  written; 
and  that  the  same  style  of  addi^ess  should  be  preserved  in 
both  the  communication  and  the  reply.  A  different  stvle,  or 
form,  seems  to  express  a  want  of  respect,  or  an  aiTogaioice  of 
superior  knowledge,  —  faults  equally  to  be  avoided  in  the  in- 
tercourse of  polished  society. 

If  the  letter  is  written  in  tTie  first  person,  the  reply  should 
also  be  in  the  first  person.    Thus,  when  the  letter  begins  : 

"  Dear  Sir, 

I  wiite  to  inform  you,"  &c., 

the  answer  should  be  in  ike  first  person  also ;  thus  : 

"  Dear  Sir, 

"I  have  received  your  letter,"  &c..  or  "Your  letter 
informing  me,  &c.,  has  been  received,  and  I  hasten  to  say," 
&c. 

If  the  letter  is  written  in  the  third  person,  thus : 

'Olr.  Parker  has  the  honor  of  informing  the  Hon.  Mi* 
Brimmer,"  &c., 

the  answer  should  also  be  in  the  third  person ;  thus  : 

"  I^Ir.  Brimmer  has  received  the  letter  of  Mr.  Parker,"  &c 

the  attention  of  the  student.  He  lias  deemed  it  expedient  to  reserre  the 
subject  for  this  part  of  the  rolume,  and  for  the  practice  of  the  student  vrho 
has  been  previously  exercised  in  other  attempts.  At  this  stage  of  his  pro- 
gress, he  may  be  profitably  exercised  in  the  -svriting  of  letters.  The  teacher 
may  now  require  him  to  wi-ite  notes,  billets,  and  letters  addressed  tc  a  real 
or  fictitious  person,  announcing  some  event,  or  on  some  formal  s  abject. 
The  teacher  cannot  be  too  particular  in  his  du-ections  Tvith  regard  to  fold- 
ing, sealing,  &c.,  for  early  habits  of  negligence,  or  -want  of  neatness,  are 
with  difficulty  eradicated. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


185 


^  The  name  of  the  writer  should  always  be  subscribed  to  the 
letter  when  it  is  written  in  the  first  person,  but  never  when 
it  is  written  in  the  third.  The  date  of  the  letter  should  also 
be  written  at  the  beginning,  when  the  letter  is  written  in  the 
first  person,  and  at  the  end,  when  it  is  written  in  the  third. 
The  address  of  the  letter  should  be  written  under  the  signa- 
ture, and  towards  the  left  side  of  the  letter,  when  it  is  written 
in  the  first  person,  but  not  when  it  is  written  in  the  third. 

A  neat  and  well-written  letter  is  a  mucli  more  rare  production  than  it 
ouf^ht  to  be.  Fbav  directions  can  be  given  with  regard  to  the  composition 
of  a  letter;  but  it  is  intended  in  this  exercise  to  give  some  general  directions 
with  regard  to  the  mechanical  execution  of  letters,  notes,  and  billets.  And, 
first,  with  regard  to  Letters. 

A  letter  should  embrace  the  following  particulars,  namely : 
1st.  The  date.  2d.  The  complimentary  address.  3d.  The 
body  of  the  letter.  4th.  The  style,  or  complimentary  closing. 
5  th.  The  signature  ;  and,  6th.  The  address,  with  the  title,  if 
any. 

The  date  should  be  written  near  the  right  hand  upper 
corner  of  the  sheet.  The  compHmentary  address  follows,  a 
little  lower  down,  near  the  left  hand  side  of  the  sheet.  The 
body  of  the  letter  should  be  commenced  very  nearly  under 
the  last  letter  of  the  complimentary  address.  The  style,  or 
complimentary  closing,  should  stand  very  nearly  under  the 
last  letter  of  the  body ;  the  signature  very  nearly  under  the 
last  letter  of  the  style ;  and  the  address  shoidd  be  placed  a 
little  below  the  signature,  and  towards  the  left  hand  side  of 
the  sheet. 

16* 


186 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 
Example  1st. 

FORM  OF  A  LETTER. 


Date. 


Complimentary  address. 

Body  of  the  Letter. 


Style,  or  Complimentary  Closing. 

Signature. 


Addr^s^or^uperscription. 

Title,  if  any. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  187 
Example  2d. 

A  LETTER,  WITH  ITS  PARTS. 


{date.) 

{c<rnplimentary  address.) 

^eaZ  (2%^,        (it>ody  of  the  letter.) 

e'ue^,  of  'dave  un^cyiltmale^  ne^/eoiec^  any-  'ma= 

{style^  or  com;plimentary  closing.) 

(signature.) 

{the  address.^  or  superscription.) 

'  ^^^^^  ^a^/ie^.  ^^^^^^^ 


In  very  formal  letters,  the  address  should  precede  the 
letter  and  the  signature,  so  that  the  individual  addressed  may, 
at  first  sight,  perceive  that  the  communication  is  intended  for 
him,  before  he  has  taken  the  trouble  to  read  it  through.  In 
this  caso,  also,  the  date  should  be  written  below,  in  the  place 
of  the  address. 


188  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Example  3d. 

A  F0K3IAL  LETTER. 


The  folding  *  of  a  letter,  though  in  itself  a  thing  of  appa- 
rently trivial  importance,  is  still  deserving  of  attention.  The 
following  will  be  more  intelligible  than  written  directions. 


*  Official  documents  and  verv  formal  letters  have,  sometimes,  but  two 
folds  ;  and  these  are  made  by  doubling  over  the  top  and  bottom  parts  of  the 
whole  sheet,  or  open  letter,  'in  the  manner  in  which  papers  are  generally 
kept  on  file.    The  whole  is  then  enclosed  in  an  envelope. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


189 


JExample  Uh. 
This  Cut  represents  the  folding  of  a  Letter. 

N5.  1.  The  Letter  before  it  is  folded 


]Sro.  2.  The  first  fold,  on*  fourth  part  ol 
the  first  leaf  turned  over. 


Bosto7i,  Feb.  9,  1644. 
Dear  Sir, 

Your  letter  of  the  'Itk 
has  been  duly  received,  and 
I  shall,  at  my  earliest  leisure, 
attend  to  the  business  to 
whicli  you  have  therein  called 
my  attention. 

Yours  respectfidly, 

Joh7i  Smith. 
Mr.  Richard  Roe. 


Ko.  -3.  The  second  fold ;  the  folded  part 
turned  over  so  as  to  meet  the  left 
side  of  the  sheet. 


Soston, 

Dear  Sir, 

Your 

has  been  did 

1  sliail  at  mij 

attend  to  t/t 

vjhich  you  h 

my  attention 

Yours,  r 

Mr.  Richara 

1 

•Eo.  4.  The  third  fold. 


■  '  


No.  6.  The  fifth  fold. 


t  1 

1  / 

STo.  7.  The  letter  closed.     ZsTo.  8.  The  letter  sealed.  No.  9.  The  letter  directed. 


-0- 


190 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


TITLES. 

In  the  superscription  of  a  letter,  the  title  of  Honourable  i3 
generally  given  hj  courtesy  to  the  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States  ;  to  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  a  State  ;  to 
the  Senators  and  Representative*  of  the  United  States ;  tc 
the  Senators  of  the  respective  States,  and  to  the  Judges  of 
all  the  courts  ;  to  the  Mayor  of  a  city  ;  to  the  Heads  of  De 
partments,  &c.  In  addressing  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  the  Governor  of  a  Commonwealth,  or  an  Ambassador 
of  the  United  States,  the  title  "  His  Excellency  "  *  is  gener- 
ally used,  t 

*  See  Antonomasia,  page  82. 

t  No  titles  are  formally  recognized  by  law  in  this  country,  except  in 
Massachusetts,  where  the  legal  title  of  the  Governor  is  "  His  Excellency," 
and  that  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  "His  Honor;"  and,  therefore,  as  it 
is  stated  above,  it  is  by  courtesy  only,  that  the  usage  has  obtained.  As  it  is 
possible  that  this  volume  may  fall  into  the  hands  of  some  individuals  who 
are  curious  to  know  something  of  the  forms  of  address  in  the  mother  coun- 
try, the  following  directions  are  extracted  from  the  grammar  of  Mr.  Lenme, 
published  in  Edinburgh  a  few  years  ago. 

Directions  for  Superscriptions  and  Forms  of  Address  to  Tersons  of  every 
Rank. 

I  The  superscription^  or  what  is  put  on  the  outside  of  a  letter,  is  printed  in 
Eoman  characters,  and  begins  with  To.  The  terms  of  address  used  in  ber- 
ginning  either  a  letter,  a  petition,  or  verbal  addi-ess,  are  printed  in  Itahc 
letters,  immediately  after  the  superscription.  The  blanks  are  to  be  filled  up 
with  the  real  name  and  title.] 

«'  To  the  King's  Most  Excellent  Majesty,  —  Sire,  or  May  it  please  your 
Majesty,  Conclude  a  petition,  or  speech,  with,  —  Your  Majesty's  most 
Loyal  and  Dutiful  Subject.  .  , 

To  the  Queen's  Most  Excellent  ^l^^^^ij,  — Madam,  or,  May  it  please  your 
Majesty.  ^   ,  .  , 

To  his  Royal  Highness,  Frederick,  Duke  of  York,  —  JSlay  it  please  your 
'Royal  Highness.  r.  ■,    t,      i  -n     -i  7 

In  the  same  manner  address  every  other  member  of  the  Koyal  h  amily,  male 

mliit^^^o  his  Grace  the  Duke  of  ,  My  Lord  Duke,  Your  Grace,  or, 

3Iay  it  please  your  Grace.  ^ 

To  the  Most  Noble  the  ilarquis  of  ,  My  Lord  Marquis,  Tour  Lordship 

To  the  Right  Honorable  ,  Earl  of  ,  My  Lord,  Your  Lordship. 

To  the  Right  Honorable  Lord  Viscount  ,  My  Lord,  May  it  please  your 

Lordship.  ,  ^_     .     ,  ^     ,  ^ 

To  the  Right  Honorable  Baron  ,  My  Lord,  May  it  please  your  Lordship. 

The  wives  of  noblemen  have  the  same  Titles  with  their  husbands,  thus  : 

To  her  Grace  the  Duchess  of  ,  May  it  please  your  Grace. 

To  the  Right  Honorable  Lady  Ann  Rose,  —  My  Lady,  May  it  please  your 

tiles^of  Lord  and  BxgU  Honorable  are  given  to  aU  the  sons  of  Dukes 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


191 


The  members  of  ^  house  of  representatives,  or  of  a  board 
of  aldermen,  taken  ^  .^liectively,  should  be  addressed  as  "  The 
Honorable,"  &c. 

The  title  of  Esquire  is  also  given  by  courtesy  in  the  super- 
scription of  a  letter,  to  all  gentlemen  to  whom  we  wish  to 
show  respect ;  but^  when  the  title  of  Hon.  or  Honorable  is 


and  Marquises,  ard  t-o  the  eldest  sons  of  Earls  ;  and  the  title  of  Lady  and 
RigU  Honorable  to  all  their  daughters.  The  younger  sons  of  Earls  are 
all  Honorables  aud  Esquirss. 

Right  Honorable  is  due  to  Earls,  Viscounts,  and  Barons,  and  to  all  the 
members  of  Her  Majesty's  Most*  Honorable  Privy  Council,  to  the  Lord 
Mayors  of  London,  York,  and  Dublin,  and  to  the  Lord  Provost  of  Hdin 
burgh,  during  tho  lime  they  are  in  office ;  to  the  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons ;  to  the  Lords  Comnaissioners  of  the  Treasury,  Admiralty, 
Trade,  and  Plantations,  &c. 

The  House  of  Peers  is  addressed  thus,  — To  the  Eight  Honorable  the 
Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  in  Parliament  assembled.  My  Lords,  May  it  ^please  yotvt 
Lordships. 

The  House  of  Commons  is  addressed  thus,  — To  the  Honorable  the 
Knidits,  Citizens,  and  Burgesses  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  in  Parliament  assembled.  Gentlemen,  or,  May  it  please  your 
Honors. 

The  sons  of  Viscounts  and  Barons  are  styled  Honorable  and  Esquire ;  and 
their  daughters  have  their  letters  addressed  thus,  —  to  the  Honorable 
Miss  or  Mi's.  D.  B. 

The  king's  commission  confers  the  title  of  Honorable  on  any  gentleman  in 
a  place  of  honor  or  trust ;  such  as,  the  Commissioners  of  Excise,  His 
Majesty's  Customs,  Board  of  Control,  &c.,  Admirals  of  the  Navy,  Gen- 
erals, Lieutenant-Generals,  and  Colonels  in  the  Army. 

All  noblemen,  or  men  of  title,  in  the  army  ami  navy,  use  their  title  by  right, 
such  as  Honorable,  before  their  title  of  rank,  such  as  Captain,  &c. ;  thus, 
the  Honorable  Captain  James  James  of  the  ,  Sir,  or  Your  Honor. 

Honorable  is  due,  also,  to  the  Court  of  Directors  of  the  East  India  Company, 
the  Governors  and  Deputy-Governors  of  the  Bank  of  England. 

The  title  Excellency  is  given  to  all  Ambassadors,  Plenipotentiaries,  Gov- 
ernors in  foreign  countries,  to  the  Lord-Lieutenant,  and  to  the  Lords 
Justices  of  the  Kingdom  of  Ireland.    Address  such  thus, — 

To  his  Excellency  Sir  ,  Bart.,  Her  Britannic  Majesty's  Envoy  Extract 

dinary,  and  Plenipotentiary  to  the  Court  of  Rome,  —  Your  Excellency 
May  it  please  your  Excellency. 

The  title  Right  Worshipful,  is  given  to  the  Sheriffs,  Aldermen,  and  Re 
corder  of  London ;  and  Worshipful,  to  the  Aldermen  and  Recorders  of 
other  Corporations,  and  to  Justices  of  the  Peace  in  England, —  Sir,  oi 
Your  JVorship. 

The  Clergy  are  all  styled  Reverend,  except  the  Archbishops  and  Bishops, 

who  have  something  additional ;  thus, — 
To  his  Grace  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  or,  To  the  Most  Reverend 

Father  in  God,  Charles,  Lord  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, — My  Lord,  or, 

Your  Grace. 

To  the  Right  Reverend  Father  in  God,  John,  Lord  Bishop  of  ,  My 

Lord,  or.  Your  Lordship. 

*  The  Privy  CounseUore,  taken  collectively,  are  styled  his  M^esty's  Most  Honw- 
able  Privy  Council. 


192 


AIDS  rO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


use 


...  3cl,  that  of  Esquire  is  always  to  be  omitted,  on  the  principle 
that  the  greater  contains  the  less.  For  the  same  reason,  the 
title  ]V:[r.  should  never  precede  that  of  Esquire.* 

OE  NOTES  OF  INVITATION. 

Notes  of  invitation,  except  where  a  great  degree  of  famili- 
arity is  used,  are  generally  written  in  the  third  person,  and 
on  paper  of  smaller  size,  called  billet  paper.  The  answers 
should  also  be  written  in  the  third  person,  and  the  same  forms 
of  expression  should  be  used,  as  those  employed  in  the  invi- 
tation. A  departure  from  the  form  seems  like  arrogance  of 
superior  knowledge  of  propriety  ;  but  where  an  expression  is 
manifestly  out  of  place,  or  improper,  the  writer  of  the  reply 
is  by  no  means  bound  to  sacrifice  his  own  sense  of  propriety 
to  the  carelessness  or  the  ignorance  of  the  one  who  addresses 
him. 

The  same  observations  that  were  made  with  regard  to  the 
date  of  a  letter  addressed  in  the  third  person,  apply  also  to 

^  J^he  address  on  the  outside  of  a  letter,  note,  &c.,  when  the  residence 
of  the  person  addressed  is  unknown,  but  it  is  known  that  he  is  an  inhabit- 
ant of  the  town  or  city  in  which  we  write,  the  word  "  Prese7it "  is  frequently 
introduced  to  supply  the  place  of  the  residence. 

To  the  very  Rev.  Dr.  A.  B.,         of  ,  Sir. 

To  the  Rev.  Mr.  Desk,  or.  To  tffe  Rev.  John  Desk.  *  _ 
The  general  address  to  clergymen  is,  Sir,  and  when  written  to,- Kevereri^ 
Sir.    Deans  and  Archdeacons  are  usuaUy  called  Mr.  Dean,  Mr.  Arcfi- 

AdSllTthe  Principal  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh  thus,  — To  the  Very 
Rev.  Dr.  B.,  Principal  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  —  X>orfor /when 
wi-ittento,  Veri/  Rev.  Doctor.  The  other  Professors  thus,  — To  Dr.  D. 
R.,  Professor  of  Logic  in  the  University  of  E.,  —  Doctor.  K  a  Clergyman, 
say,  —  To  the  Rev.  Dr.  J.  M.,  Professor  of,  &c.,  —  Reverend  Doctor. 

Those  who  are  not  Drs.  are  styled  Esquire,  but  not  Mr.  too;  thus,  —  lo  J. 
P.  Esq.,  Professor  of  Humanitv  in  the  University  of  Edmburgh,  —  ^tr. 
If  he  has  a  literary  title,  it  may  be  added.  Thus,  To  J.  P.,  Esq.,  A.  M., 
Professor  of,  &c.  ,        ,  t»   -  <. 

Magistrates,  BaiTisters  at  Law,  or  Advocates,  and  Members  of  Faniament, 
VIZ.  of  the  House  of  Commons  (these  last  have  M.  P.  after  Esq.,)  and  all 
gentlemen  in  independent  curcumstances,  are  styled  Esquire,  and  their 
wives  Mrs." 

•  It  seems  to  be  unsettled  whether  Mr.  should  he  used  after  B^fmf^  ^cLT^kJ^r 
my  opinion  (says  Mr.  Lennie)  it  should,  because  it  gives  a  clergyman  ^1]^  o^JJ^^o"^^- 
arv-  title  over  and  above  the  common  one.  May  we  not  use  the  Rev.  Mr.  as  wen  as 
thi  Eev  ^r  ?  Besides,  we  do  not  always  recollect  whether  his  name  /ames  or 
yoAn  &c    Mr.,  in  such  a  case,  would  look  better  on  the  back  of  a  letter  than  a  loug, 

n»  dr'aw^  dash  thns  The  Rev.   Desk.   In  short,  Mr.  is  used  by  our  best  writers 

aft^^Sertnd  but  not  uniformly.  The  words  To  the,  not  being  necessary  on  the 
latl  5  Iletfer,  are  seldom  used  f  but,. in  addressing  it  in  the  insiSe,  left  hand  corner, 
at  the  bottom,  they  are  generally  used. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


193 


notes  of  invitation.  The  date  should  be  at  the  bottom  of  the 
note,  and  at  the  left  hand.  * 

Example  5th. 

FOEM  OF  N0TE3  OF  INVITATION,  WITH  THE  REPLY. 
INVITATION  FOR  THE  EVENING. 


eacon 


Example  Qtk. 

THE  REPLY. 


mem 


*  When  notes  or  letters  are  addressed  to  gentlemen  of  tfie  same  name, 
they  should  be  addressed,  "  The  Messrs.,"  or,  "  Messrs. ; "  if  to  two  single 
ladies,  "  The  Misses,"  not  the  "  Miss."  Thus,  "  The  Missea  Smiih,  or, 
"The  Misses  Davies,"  not,  "  The  Miss  Smiths,"  nor  "  The  Miss  Davises. 

t  As  the  lady  is  generally  considered  the  head  of  the  tea-  table,  toer« 
seems  to  be  a  propriety  in  the  invitation  to  tea,  or  the  evening,  coming  trom 
the  lady  of  the  house  alone.  ^  , 

%  Or,  Mr.  and  Mrs  Chapman  regret  that  a  previous  engagtijmU  unil  if 

17 


194  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

Examph  1th.*' 

INVITATION  TO  DINNEK. 


Ijd'  company        c/mne^  on 


Example  Sth. 

THE  REPLY* 


^^eaco^ 


frive  tJiem  of  the  pleasure  of  ciccepting  Ms.  Smithes  polite  invitation  for 
Thursday  eveniytg^  the  bth  inst. 

The  address  of  a  gentleman  to  a  lady's  invitation  maybe  :  Mr.  Chaprrum 
has  the  honor  of  accepting.,  &c.,  or,  regrets  that  a  previous  engagement  toill 
vrevent  his  having  the  honor,  &c. 

*  The  latest  and  most  approved  style  of  folding  notes,  is  to  enclose  them 
in  an  envelope,  in  the  manner  explained  in  reference  to  official  docu 
mentR,  in  the  note  on  page  ISSth.  The  envelopes,  ready  made,  are  fur 
pished  by  the  stationer.  If  not  enclosed,  they  generally  have  two  folds 
only ;  and  in  directing  them,  the  open  part,  or  leaves,  of  the  noto  should  be 
9»  the  left  side.   When  enclosed,  but  on©  fold  is  necessai-r 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


195 


With  regai'd  to  tlie  sealing  of  a  letter,  if  g,  wafer  is  to  be 
used,  care  should  be  taken  that  it  be  not  made  too  moist,  for, 
in  that  case,  it  will  not  receive  a  good  impression  from  the 
seal ;  and,  moreover,  is  apt  to  give  the  letter  a  soiled  appear- 
ance. But  they  who  are  particular  about  these  matters 
always  use  wax  in  preference  to  wafers. 

EORMS  OF  CAEDS. 

Under  the  head  of  epistolary  correspondence,  may  also  be  etnbraced 
the  different  forms  of  ceremonious  cards,  designed  for  morning  calls,  nup 
tial  ceremonies,  &c.  As  these  are  all  supposed  to  be  -written  or  dictated 
by  the  individual  who  uses  them,  no  title  conceded  by  courtesy  alone  should 
ever  be  seen  on  them.  Even  the  prefix  of  Mr.  on  a  gentleman's  card, 
savors  of  arrogance,  for  the  literal  meaning  of  the  prefix  is  "  Master." 
But  the  case  is  different  on  the  card  of  a  lady,  and  the  prefix  Mrs.  (al- 
though it  means  "Mistress")  is  to  be  used,  in  order  to  distinguish  her 
name  from  that  of  her  husband.  The  question  may  arise,  whether  the 
residence  should  be  inserted  on  the  card.  To  this  question  a  decided 
affirmative  reply  is  given,  although  it  is  known  to  be  at  variance  with  not 
unfrequent  usage.  The  omission  of  the  residence  seems  to  imply  the 
belief,  that  the  individual  is  a  person  of  such  distinction,  that  the  knowledge 
of  the  residence  is  a  matter  of  notoriety,  and  needs  not  to  be  mentioned. 
Now,  in  all  the  courtesies  of  life,  the  individual  speaking  of  himself,  should 
speak  modestly  and  with  humility ;  and,  however  distinguished  he  may 
be,  he  should  be  guilty  of  no  arrogance  of  distinction.  The  insertion  ot 
the  residence,  therefore,  is  to  be  recommended  on  this  ground  alone,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  possibility  of  mistake,  arising  from  the  bearing  of  the 
same  name  by  two  diff"erent  families  or  by  two  diff"erent  individuals. 

In  the  cards  of  the  young  ladies  of  a  family,  the  faniily  name,  with  the 


*  Lord  Chesterfield,  having  received  a  letter  sealed  with  a  wafer,  is  said 
to  have  expressed  strong  disapprobation,  saying,  "  What  does  the  fellow 
mean  by  sending  me  his  own  spittle  /"  It  is  related,  also,  of  Lord  Nelson, 
that,  in  the  very  midst  of  the  battle  of  Copenhagen,  when  the  work  of  carnage 
and  destruction  was  the  hottest  around  him,  and  he  jiidged  it  expedient  to 
propose  a  cessation  of  hostilities,  a  wafer  being  brought  to  him  to  seal  his 
communication  to  the  Danish  authorities,  he  rejected  it,  directing  the  wax 
and  a  taper  to  be  brought,  saying,  "  What !  shall  I  send  my  own  spittle  to 
the  Crown  Prince  ?  "  In  this  latter  case,  however,  policy  might  have  been 
mingled  vdth  refinement ;  for  a  wafer  seems  to  imply  haste,  and  the  sealing 
of  his  letter  with  a  wafer  would  have  implied  a  desire  for  a  speedy  cessa- 
tion of  hostilities,  which  would  have  been  construed  into  a  necessity  of  the 
same,  and  have  rendered  his  enemies  confident  of  success,  and  unwilling  to 
accede  to  the  proposal.  The  coolness  and  deliberation  implied  in  the  seal- 
ing with  wax,  concealed  from  his  enemies  the  knowledge  of  the  condition 
of  his  fleet,  and  disposed  them  to  comply  with  his  wishes. 

There  is  a  kind  of  transparent  glazed  wafer  very  much  in  use  at  the 
present  day ;  but  even  this  seems  to  be  obnoxious  to  the  same  objections, 
—  it  implies  haste,  which  is  inconsistent  with  the  studied  courtesies  of 
polished  life,  and,  moreover,  involves  the  necessity  of  sending  one's  own 

spittle:'' 


196  AIDS  TO   ENGLISH  CO-AIPOSITION. 

prefix  of  "  il/iss,"  is  proper  to  be  used  witlwut  the  "  Christian  name,^  by 
the  eldest  of  the  single  daughters.  The  Christian  nam'is  of  the  younger 
daughters  should  be  inserted.  To  illustrate  by  an  ex&uiple,  suppose  a 
gentleman,  by  the  name  of  Arthur  S.  Wellington,  resides  vith  his  familjr, 
a  wife,  snid  three  daughters,  Caroline  M.,  Catharine  S.,  ana  Augusta  P.,  in 
Tremont  Street.    His  card  should  be : 

that  of  his  -wife, 


ids  eldest  daughter's, 
his  second  daughter's, 
his  third  daughter's, 

oTzemonl  <S^^eef. 

On  the  death,  or  marriage,  of  the  eldest  daughter,  the  second  daughter 
becomes  Miss  Wellington*  &c. 

*  On  wedding  cards,  or  cards  preceding  a  wedding,  there  is  considerable 
diversity  of  opinion,  whether  the  name  of  both  the  gentleman  and  the  lady 
should  be  inserted,  or  whether  that  of  the  lady  alone  should  be  expressed. 
A  decided  opinion  is,  however,  expressed,  that  the  name  of  the  lady  alone 
belongs  on  the  card.  She  is  to  be  the  future  mistress  of  the  house ;  over 
its  internal  arrangements  she  alone  has  (or  should  have)  any  control,  and  to 
her  alone  also,  all  visits  of  ceremony  are  directed.  The  same  re^asons, 
therefore,  which  exclude  the  name  of  the  husband  from  the  notes  of  mvi 
tation,  seem  to  apply  with  equal  force  to  the  exclusion  of  the  name  ot  the 
future  husband  from  the  wedding  cards.  Thus,  supposmg  that  Mr.  .)obn 
Singleton  and  Miss  Sarah  Greenwood  intend  mamage,  the  Aveddmg  card 
should  be  expressed  thus  : 

Miss  Sarah  Greenv/ood, 

At  home  on  Tuesday  Eve'g,  at  8  o'clock. 
48  Winter  Street 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION".  197 

Another  class  of  cards,*  called  business  cards,  form  a  convenient  mode 
of  advertising,  and  are  much  used  at  the  present  day.  Of  these  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  say,  that  they  should  be  short,  comprehensive,  clear,  and  dis 
tinct.    The  card  of  an  attorney  or  a  counsellor  at  law  w^ill  read  thus : 


4/  ^om^  &izee^, 


"Reference : 
Hon.  John  Dane, 
Nam  Boyall,  Esq 

The  card  of  a  physician  may  be  expressed  in  the  following  fonn . 

^cm/nd,  Qd.  m..  ©£.  G/i 

Reference : 
Dr.  William  Rand, 
"  John  Warren. 


*■  There  are  some  portions  of  this  article,  particularly  those  relating  to 
ceremonious  observances  in  epistolary  correspondence,  which  may  be 
deemed  out  of  place  in  a  volume  professing  to  treat  of  grave  composition. 
The  author's  apology  for  their  introduction  is  the  want  he  has  long  felt  of 
something  of  the  kind  for  the  use  of  his  own  pupils.  He  confesses  that  he 
is  alone  responsible  for  all  the  directions  and  the  suggestions  in  the  intro- 
duction to  the  Exercise  ;  and,  while  he  is  conscious  that  the  attitude  of  a 
learner  would  become  him  better  than  that  of  a  teacher  in  these  points,  he 
apologizes  for  his  presumption  by  the  statement,  that  he  knows  no  source 
in  print  to  which  he  can  refer  those  who  are  desirous  of  information  upon 
these  topics.  How  he  has  thus  supplied  the  deficiency,  he  leaves  for  others 
to  judge.  To  those  who  have  any  thing  to  object  to  what  he  has  ad- 
vanced, he  respectfully  addresses  the  words  of  the  Venusian  poet : 

 "  Si  quid  novisti  rectius  istis, 

Candidus  imperti ;  si  non,  Iiis  utere  mecura." 

That  the  whole  subject  is  important  in  an  enlightened  community,  needs 
no  stronger  corroboration  than  the  assertion  of  the  author  of  Waverley, 
(see"/mw;i06,"  Parker's  edition.  Vol.  1st,  p.  169,;  that  "a  man  mav  with 
more  impunity  be  guilty  of  an  actual  breach  of  good  breeding  or  of  good 
morals,  than  appear  ignorant  of  the  most  minute  point  of  fashionable 
etiquette."  '  ^ 


17* 


198  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COSIPOSITION. 

The  card  of  a  commission  merchant  is  as  follows : 

Jp9    Wabet  8^ttecfc, 

Ref^ence:  ^i^.k^ 
Samuel  Good,  1 
Fiske  S,-  Rand,  V  Esquires. 

George  W.  Laurence,  J 

Example  9th. 

A  LETTER  OF  INTRODUCTION. 

[N.  B.   It  will  be  noticed,  that  it  is  not  customary  to  seal  a  Letter. of  In 
troduction.J 


^em  <?9k, 

S^di^  danc/ec/    you  ^  ^my  ^ce7t(/, 

Qyfi^z.  mdo  yom  ec^y  on  ^um= 

ner^  coTiTzecfeci  did  ^izo^eddton.  (S^.  G^?7zild^ 
id  one  0^  ide  ^^lOdl  c/idt{/y?yiiMde(/  'me?n^ezd  o^ 
^a^M  ^Saz,  and  you  toi//  nol  ^ai/ di 
ida^  de  id  od  ze7nmdad/e  ^oz  di) yeneia/ dcdo^Zdd/^, 
and  ide ^ic/ijd  o^ did  'nzannezd,  ad  ^z  did  emineTtce 
in  ^de  /eya/jfize^eddion.  S^de  a^ien^iond  zadicd yoti 
^nay ^i/eode  ddoio-  dim  <?7ty  dade,  q/ daz^e  no 
dou^l  idal  yocc  toi//      dafi^iy  ^o  continue  did 

omn,  a/^  o^  mdicddda//^e  yza^e^ud^  acdnom/:^ 

ec/yeci  and  deazli/y  zeciAzoca-^ed  ^y 


^edn  0dgr. 


occzd  zed^iec^^u 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSTIOX. 


199 


£xam2}le  10th. 


A  LETTER  OF  CONDOLENCE. 

Boston,  April  I9th,  1845. 

Dear  Friencl, 

I  write  this  under  the  utmost  oppression  of  sorrow;  the  youngest 
daughter  of  our  friend  Jones  is  dead !  Never,  surely,  was  there  a  more 
agreeable,  and  more  amiable  young  person ;  or  one  who  better  deserved 
to  have  enjoyed  a  long,  I  had  almost  said,  an  immortal  life !  She  had  all 
the  wisdom  of  age,  and  the  discretion  of  a  matron,  joined  with  youthful 
sweetness  and  virgin  modesty. 

With  what  an  engaging  fondness  did  she  behave  to  her  father !  How 
kindly  and  respectfully  receive  Ms  friends !  How  affectionately  treat  all 
those^  who,  in  their  respective  offices,  had  the  care  and  education  of  her ! 
She  emploved  much  of  her  time  in  reading,  in  which  she  discovered  great 
strength  of  jud£rment ;  she  indulged  herself  in  few  diversions,  and  thoso 
with  much  caution.  With  what  forbearance,  with  what  patience,  with 
what  courage,  did  she  endure  her  last  illness ! 

She  complied  with  all  the  directions  of  her  physicians ;  she  encouraged 
her  sister,  and  her  father  •,  and  when  all  her  strength  of  body  was  ex- 
hausted, supported  herself  by  the  single  vigor  of  her  mind.  That,  mdeed, 
continued  even  to  her  last  naoments,  unbroken  by  the  pain  of  a  long  ill- 
ness, or  the  terrors  of  approaching  death ;  and  it  is  a  reflection  which 
makes  the  loss  of  her  so  much  the  more  to  be  lamented.^  A  loss  infinite- 
ly severe !  more  severe  by  the  particular  conjuncture  in  which  it  hap 
peaed!  -, 

She  was  contracted  to  a  most  worthy  youth ;  the  wedding  day  was 
fixed,  and  we  were  all  imited.  How  sad  a  change  irom  the  highest  joy, 
to  the  deepest  sorrow !  How  shall  I  express  the  wound  that  pierced  my 
heart,  when  I  heard  Jones  himself,  (as  grief  is  ever  finding  out  cu-- 
cumstances  to  aggravate  its  affliction.)  ordering  the  money  he  had  de- 
signed to  lay  out  upon  clothes  and  jewels  for  her  marriage,  to  be  employed 
in  defraving  the  expenses  of  her  funeral !  •  j  i  • 

He  is'a  man  "of  great  learning  and  good  sense,  who  has  applied  himself, 
from  his  earliest  vouth,  to  the  noblest  and  most  elevating  studies :  but  all 
the  maxims  of  fortitude  which  he  has  received  from  books,  or  advanced 
himself,  he  now  absolutelv  rejects :  and  every  other  virtue  of  his  heart 
gives  place  to  all  a  parent's  tenderness.  We  shall  excuse,  we  shall  even 
approve  his  sorrow,  when  we  consider  what  he  has  lost.  He  has  lost  a 
daughter  who  resembled  him  in  his  manners,  as  well  as  his  person ;  and 
exactlv  copied  out  all  her  father. 

If  you  shall  think  proper  to  write  to  him  upon  the  subject  of  so  reason- 
able a  grief,  let  me  remind  you  not  to  use  the  rougher  arguments  of  con- 
solation, and  such  as  seem  to  carrv  a  sort  of  reproof  with  them;  but  those 
of  kind  and  svmpathizing  humanitv.  Time  will  render  him  more  open 
to  the  dictates  of  reason ;  for.  as  a  fresh  wound  shrinks  back  from  the  liand 
of  the  surgeon,  but  bv  degrees  submits  to,  and  even  requires  the  means 
of  its  cure,  so  a  mind,  under  the  first  impressions  of  a  misfortune,  shuns  and 


^00  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION". 

rejects  all  arguments  of  consolation ;  but  at  length,  if  applied  with  tea 
d^mess,  calmly  and  willingly  acquiesces  in  them.* 

Very  truly  yours, 

Georgk  C.  S.  Fabkea 

Henry  Dix,  Esq. 

JExercises  in  Epistolary  Writing. 

A  Letter  to  a  friend  announcing  any  event,  real  or  imaginary. 
*'      "  the  inhabitants  of  the  moon,  or  the  stars,  or  a  comet 
"      "  any  character  in  history. 
"      "  any  one  in  a  foreign  country. 
"      containing  a  journal  of  occurrences. 
"  "        criticisms  on  works  that  have  been  read. 

"  "       opinions  on  subjects  discussed  at  any  seminary 

"  "       suggestions  caused  by  daily  studies. 

"  "       requesting  the  acceptance  of  some  present 

"      describing  a  sunrise  at  sea. 
"  «'         sunset  " 

"      from  Palestine,  describing  the  country,  &c. 
«         «  England, 
«         «   France,        "         "  " 

"  Italy, 
"         "  Greece, 

'      describing  the  personal  appearance  and  style  of  preaching  of 

some  eminent  divine. 
*  «        the  EaUs  of  Niagara. 

"        the  White  Mountains. 
'*  "        Lake  Erie,  &c. 

"  "        the  Pyramids  of  Egypt. 

"  "        Mount  Vesuvius. 


LXV. 

BEGTJLAE  SUBJECTS. 

OK  A  SUBJECT,  AND  THE  METHOD  OF  TREATING  IT. 

In  writing  on  a  regular  subject,  tlie  following  directions  are 
given  by  Mr.  Walker,  as  suggestions  for  the  different  divis 
ions,  as  well  as  for  tbe  systematic  train  of  reflections. 


*  This  letter  is  an  original  of  Pliny  the  Younger  to  Marcellinus,  trans 
latod  by  Melmoth.  The  address,  &c.  has  been  altered  to  accomoiodate  it 
to  the  purposes  of  this  volume. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


20] 


The  definition ;  the  cause  ;  the  antiquity,  or  novelty ;  the  universality 
or  locality  5  the  effects ;  namely,  the  goodness  or  badness,  or  the  advaa^ 
tages  or  disadvantages. 

1st.  If  your  subject  require  explanation,  define  it  or  explain  it  at 
large. 

2nd.  Show  what  is  the  cause  of  your  subject ;  that  is,  what  is  the  oc- 
casion of  it,  or  what  it  is  derived  from. 

3d.  Show  whether  your  subject  be  ancient  or  modern ;  that  is.  what 
was  in  ancient  times,  and  what  it  is  at  present. 

4th.  Show  whether  your  subject  relates  to  the  whole  world,  or  only 
to  a  particular  part  of  it. 

5th.  Examine  whether  your  subject  be  good  or  bad ;  show  wherem 
its  goodness  or  badness  consists,  and  what  are  the  advantages  oi  disad 
vantages  that  arise  from  it.  * 

JSxaTnpIe. 


ON  GOVERNMENT. 

Definition.  Government  is  the  direction  and  restraint  exercised  over 
the  actions  of  men  in  communities,  societies,  or  states.  It  controls  the 
administration  of  pablic  affairs,  according  to  the  principles  of  an  estab- 
lished constitution,  a  code  of  written  laws,  or  by  well-known  usages ;  or 
it  may  be  administered,  as  in  some  countries,  by  the  arbitrary  edicts  of 
the  sovereign.  Government  is  the  soul  of  society :  it  is  that  order  among 
rational  creatures  which  produces  almost  all  the  benefits  they  enjoy.  A 
nation  may  be  considered  as  a  large  family ;  —  all  the  inhabitants  are,  as 
it  were,  relations ;  and  the  supreme  power,  wherever  it  is  lodged,  is  the 
common  parent  of  every  individual. 

Cause.  The  necessity  of  govemmen*  lies  in  the  nature  of  man.  In 
terest  and  selfishness,  unrestrained  by  salutary  laws  and  restrictions, 
would  be  the  controlling  principle  of  every  man's  actions,  uninfluenced 
by  a  proper  regard  for  the  rights  of  others.  It  is  necessary,  tlierefore,  to 
have  some  restraint  laid  upon  every  man  —  some  power  which  shall 
control  him,  and  impel  him  to  what  is  right,  and  deter  him  from  wliat  is 
wrong,  and  this  power  is  government.  To  this  restraint  every  one-must 
subnf.it;  and  if  in  such  submission  any  one  finds  it  necessary  to  give  up 


*  These  directions  are  thus  versified  by  Mr.  Walker : 
If  first  your  subject  definition  need. 
Define  your  subject  first,  and  then  proceed  ; 
Next,  if  you  can,  find  out  your  subject's  cause, 
And  show  from  Avhence  its  origin  it  draws  : 
Ancient  or  modern  may  your  subject  be, 
Pursue  it,  therefore,  to  antiquity ; 
Your  subject  may  to  distant  nations  roam. 
Or  else  relate  to  objects  nearer  home  : 
The  subject  which  you  treat  is  good,  or  ill  ,• 
Or  else  a  mixture  of  each  principle  : 
And  ere  your  subject  a  conclusion  know. 
The  advantage  or  the  disadvantage  show. 


202 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


a  portion  of  the  rights  with  which  he  fancies  that  God  and  nature  en 
dowed  him,  he  will  be  consoled  by  the  reflection  that  all  have  to  make 
the  sacrifice,  and  that  the  concession  is  made  for  the  protection  of  his  prop- 
erty and  his  life,  for  without  government  neither  would  be  safe. 

Antiquity.  Accordingly,  we  find,  so  deeply  seated  is  the  necessity  for 
government,  that  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world  a  kind  of  government 
was  existing  among  all  tribes  and  nations ;  and  so  remarkable  is  this 
fact,  that  almost  all  that  history  records  of  the  earliest  people  is  the  history 
of  these  kings.  » 

Universality.  In  every  part  of  the  world,  also,  at  the  present  day,  where 
numan  creatures  are  to  be  seen,  there  also  some  kind  of  government  is 
found  among  them.  Even  the  rudest  among  the  savage  nations  have 
their  kings  and  chiefs,  whose  word  is  law,  and  whose  power  is  seldom 
disputed. 

Locality.  But  government,  in  its  most  perfect  form,  is  generally  found 
among  the  most  civilized  and  enlightened  people.  Almost  all  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  government  now  existing,  or  that  ever  did  exist,  may  be 
reduced  to  three,  namely,  Monarchy,  Aristocracy,  and  Democracy.  Un- 
der one  of  these  forms  every  nation  now  known  to  exist  is  regulated 
and  controlled.  The  painted  Indian,  whose  life  and  death  are  at  the 
mercy  of  his  sachem,  the  naked  African,  who  looks  in  terror  at  his  king, 
and  the  wild  Arab,  whose  chief  is  the  sovereign  arbiter  in  the  division 
of  the  plunder  obtained  by  the  horde,  all  are  in  fact  the  subjects  of  a 
monarch.  Rome,  under  the  decemvirs,  and  Venice  and  Genoa  under 
their  nobles,  presented  the  spectacle  of  an  Aristocracy ;  while  Athens, 
luxurious  Athens,  invested  the  chief  power  in  an  assembly  of  the  people, 
and  presented  to  the  world  a  splendid  example  of  a  Democracy.  Each 
of  these  diflferent  forms  is  attended  by  its  own  peculiar  advantages 
and  disadvantages  which  the  unity  of  our  subject  does  not  permit  us 
now  to  discuss.  But  the  advantages  of  some  form  of  government  re- 
mains yet  to  be  presented. 

Advantages.  Order  is  said  to  be  the  first  law  of  heaven.  But  among 
men  it  is  essentially  necessary  for  their  very  existence.  Man,  uncon- 
trolled and  unrestrained,  would  ever  be  invading  his  brother's  rights 
Nothing  would  be  safe.  Might  would  be  right,  and  the  strongest  might 
revel  in  the  possession  of  that  which  the  weaker  had  no  power  to  keep 
from  him.  Laws  emanate  from  government.  Without  government 
there  could  be  no  laws.  It  is  the  lav/s  which  protect  every  man  in  thd 
enjoyment  of  his  life,  his  liberty,  and  his  possessions.  Without  laws, 
property  would  not  be  respected;  the  weak  would  be  the  slave  of  the 
strong,  and  the  strong  could  enjoy  their  ill-gotton  possessions  only  so 
long  as  they  could  maintain  their  ascendancy.  It  is  government,  there- 
fore, that  secures  to  every  one  the  enjoyment  of  what  he  possesses,  and 
restrains  the  strong  from  encroaching  on  the  rights  of  the  weak. 

Disadvantages.  Every  form  of  government  is  liable  to  abuse.  They 
who  are  in  power  are  engaged  in  a  constant  struggle  to  maintain  that 
power,  while  the  ambitious  and  the  aspiring  are  eagerly  watching  their 
opportunity  to  supplant  them.  This  gives  rise  to  parties  and  cabals,  to 
plots  and  intrigues,  to  treachery,  to  treason  and  rebellion,  to  civil  v/ars 
t  nd  family  feuds,  in  which  the  innocent  often  share  the  punishment  pre- 
j-ared  for  the  guilty.  But  these  evils  are  light  in  comparison  with  those 
which  epring  from  anarchy,  or  want  of  government.    It  becomes  every 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


203 


one  therefore,  to  lend  his  aid  in  support  of  the  government  under  which 
it  has  pleased  providence  to  place  him,  until  that  government  shows  by 
its  actions  that  the  good  of  the  people  for  whom  it  was  mstituted  is  not 
its  aim,  and  thereby  renders  rebellion  a  paUiated  evil,  it  not  a  virtue. 

Exercises. 


On  Time. 

Temperance. 

Modesty. 

Sculpture. 

Clemency. 

Keligion. 

Morning. 

Evening. 

Day. 

Night. 

Ambition. 

Revenge. 

Honor. 

Virtue. 

Education. 

Truth. 

The  World. 

Anger. 

Knowledge. 


On  Justice.  On 
The  Mind. 

The  corporeal  faculties. 

Eorgiveness. 

Affection  filial. 

Affection  parental,  &c. 

Cruelty. 

Faith. 

Happiness. 

Elattery. 

Indolence. 

Justice. 

Magnanimity. 

Politeness. 

Prudence. 

Courage. 

Eortitude. 

Disinterestedness. 

Eidelity. 


Joy- 
Gaming. 
Industry. 
Luxury. 
Patience. 
Pride. 

Perseverance. 

Conscience. 

Compassion. 

Equity. 

Generosity. 

Melancholy. 

Humanity. 

Ingratitude. 

Frugality. 

Patriotism. 

Prodigality^ 

Poverty. 


LXVT. 
THEMES. 

Themes  are  subjects,  or  topics,  on  which  a  person  writes 

or  speaks.  „       .     -,  •  x> 

A  theme,  as  defined  by  Mr.  Walker,  is  the  provmg  of 

some  truth.  .  , 

Themes  are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  simple  and  the 

complex. 

Simple  themes  compreliend  such  as  may  be  expressed  by 
one  term  or  more,  without  conveying  either  an  affirmation  or 
a  negation.  Such  as  Logic,  Education,  Habit,  The  Fall  ot 
the  Roman  Empire,  The  Institution  of  Chivalry.  * 

*  Such,  also,  are  the  subjects  of  the  last  Exercises  under  the  head  of 
Regular  Subjects. 


204 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Complex  themes  comprehend  such  propositions  as  adrj&i*  i/f 
proof  or  illustration  ;  expressing  a  judgment  which  of  course 
may  be  denied  without  invoking  any  positive  contradiction  Id 
the  meaning  of  the  terms.  The  following  are  examples. 
"  Logic  is  a  useful  study."  "  Youth  is  the  season  of  im- 
provement." "Wisdom  is  better  than  riches."  "A  public 
is  preferable  to  a  private  education." 

In  the  last  set  of  exercises  the  course  was  laid  do^vn  for  the  manage 
ment  of  "  a  regular  subject,"  which  is  prescribed  by  Mr.  Walker  in  his 
'^Teacher's  Assistant."  What  he  calls  "regular  subjects"  are  designed 
for  simple  themes.  The  course  prescribed  by  Mr.  Jardine,  m  his  Out- 
lines of  a  Philosophical  Education,  is  less  mechanical,  and  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred, because  the  mind  of  the  student  is  less  fettered  by  "leading 
strings,"  and  left  more  to  its  own  resources.  The  following  are  his  pre- 
liminary remarks : 

"  To  give  an  illustration  of  a  simple  theme  I  shall  suppose  the  subject 
to  be  Logic,  and  shall  shortly  apply  the  scholastic  rules  to  the  structure 
of  the  essay  which  should  be  composed  upon  it." 

"  The  first  rule  directs  the  student  to  begin  by  fixing  exactly  the  mean- 
ing of  the  term,  which  is  the  subject  of  the  theme,  removing  eveiy  thing 
that  is  doubtful  or  equivocal  in  its  signification ;  and,  when  difficulties 
of  that  kind  occur,  the  true  import  of  the  word  must  be  determined  by 
the  canons  of  etymology,  or  by  the  practice  of  the  best  writers." 

"  By  the  second  rule,  which  is  the  principle  one,  he  is  required  to  ex- 
plain the  essential  and  accidental  qualities  of  the  subject,  here  supposed 
to  be  logic ;  and  to  enumerate  them,  according  to  their  order  and  impor- 
tance, and  with  a  reference  to  the  end  which  is  contemplated  by  the 
logician.  That  end  is  the  estabhshment  of  truth  or  the  refutation  of 
error,  and  it  is  accomplished  by  the  application  of  those  rules  of  right 
reasoning,  in  which  the  art  of  logic  may  be  said  to  consist.  In  these 
rules  are  included  definition,  division,  classification,  as  well  as  those 
general  directions  relative  to  pronositions  which  are  derived  from  the 
ancient  dialectics.  But  it  is  unnecessaiy  here  to  enlarge ;  for  the  most 
important  of  the  rules,  for  both  kinds  of  themes,  are  the  same,  in  so  far, 
at  least,  as  the  object  of  both  is  the  attainment  of  clear  notions,  lucid  ar 
rangement,  and  perspicuous  expression." 

"  The  special  rules  which  relate  to  the  management  of  complex  themes, 
may  be  shortly  enumerated.  That  no  propositions,  advanced  as  the 
ground  of  inference  and  deduction  should  be  admitted,  but  upon  the  best 
and  most  solid  evidence,  arising  from  sense,  from  consciousness,  or  experi- 
ence, or  fi-orn  undeniable  truths,  such  as  axioms  and  intuitive  propositions  : 
or  lastly,  upon  testimony,  analogy,  facts  already  proved,  the  undeviatin^ 
laws  of  nature,  &c.  —  that  the  meaning  of  the  subject,  and  predicates  of 
the  radical  proposition  be  accurately-fixed  —  that  the  extent  of  the  affinna 
tion  or  negation  be  exactly  ascertained,  so  that  the  proposition  may  be 
stated  in  the  most  intelligiiole  manner,  and  the  logical  rules  of  division  be 
applied  —  that  the  attention  be  next  directed  to  the  kind  of  evidence  by 
which  the  proposition  is  established — and  the  arguments  to  be  intro 
duced  in  such  order,  that  those  which  precede  shall  throw  light  on  those 
that  foUow,  and  form  a  connected  chain  of  comparisons,  by  which  nlti- 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


205 


.  mately  the  dgreement  or  disagreement,  expressed  in  the  proposition, 
shall  be  made  manifest;  and  finally  that  all  objections  against  the  propo- 
sition he  candidly  and  explicitly  answered.  The  proof,  when  it  is  long, 
may  be  concluded  with  a  recapitulation,  containing  the  united  strength 
of  all  the  arguments  which  have  been  brought  to  confirm  it." 

"  It  is  impossible  to  prescribe  rules  which  shall  exactly  accord  with  the 
variety  of  subjects  w^iich  may  come  under  this  order  of  themes,  and,  there- 
fore, much  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  and  experience  of  the  teacher. 
It  is  not  every  theme  that  requires  the  application  of  all  the  mles.  The 
first  rule  may  be  sometimes  necessary ;  the  second  is  indispensable  on  all 
subjects ;  the  other  rules  are  only  occasionally  required  ;  —  a  rigid  adhe- 
rence to  these  rules  might  render  composition  stitf  and  formal;  but  that 
would,  in  a  great  measure,  be  prevented,  by  frequent  use  and  judicious 
application." 

"  Though,  in  the  management  of  complex  themes,  the  rules  of  demon 
stration  cannot  be  always  followed,  yet  the  clearness,  certainty,  and  pro- 
gress of  that  kind  of  reasoning,  ought  to  be  the  standard,  as  the  best  and 
most  effectual  mode  of  procuring  the  assent  of  the  mind.  Let  the  young 
composer  imitate  the  geometrician,  in  first  attempting  to  establish  clearly 
the  datum  on  which  the  deduction  rests,  and  then  proceed,  with  grad- 
ual and  increasing  strength,  to  the  conclusion."  ^ 


*  It  may,  perhaps,  be  objected  that  the  course  here  prescribed  by  Mr. 
Jardine  is  too  difficult  for  the  young  student.  If  perfect  or  finished  com- 
positions were  required,  there  might  be  good  grounds  for  such  an  opinion. 
In  all  cases,  perfect  specimens  must  be  preceded  by  many  unsuccess- 
ful efforts.  An  eminent  writer  has  candidly  acknowledged  that  he  would 
be  ashamed  to  disclose  the  many  unsuccessful  attempts  he  had  made,  be- 
fore he  could  produce  any  ;hing  worthy  of  public  attention.  Imperfect, 
then,  as  the  first  essays  of  the  student  maybe,  they  constitute  the  natural 
and  indispensable  steps  which  lead  to  higher  degrees  of  perfection. 

The  following  extract  from  one  of  Mrs.  Sherwood's  "  Social  Tales  "  is  so 
pertinent  to  the  subject,  that  it  is  thought  that  it  will  be  useful  to  the  stu- 
dent to  present  it  in  this  place.  The  tale  from  which  it  is  extracted  is 
entitled  "  Hoc  Age." 

"  It  was  the  custom  of  my  father,  when  I  was  a  girl,  to  require  of  me 
every  Saturday,  a  few  pages  written  upon  a  given  subject.  Well  do  I  re- 
member the  hours  which  I  sometimes  used  to  spend  on  these  unfortunate 
Satm-day  mornings,  in  endeavoring  to  elicit  sparks  of  genius  from  the 
cold  iron  of  my  brain  ;  and  how  pleased  I  was  wont  to  be,  when  any  thing 
like  a  bright  idea  presented  itself  to  my  imagination  :  such  were  welcome 
to  me  as  angel's  visits,  which  are  said  to  be  few  and  far  between. 

"  Much  of  my  success,  however,  I  found,  depended  upon  the  subject 
which  was  given  me.  When  these  subjects  were  fruitful  and  congenial  to 
my  feelings,  the  task  was  comparatively  easy  ;  but  when  they  were  new 
and  strange  to  me,  my  labor  was  greatly'increased,  and  so  far  from  bfeing 
able  to  put  my  ideas  into  any  new  form,  I  seemed  to  lose  the  power  of 
expressing  them,  even  in  the  most  ordifiary  way. 

"  Judge,  then,  what  must  have  been  my  despair,  when  on  a  certain  Sat- 
urday, having  stolen  up  into  my  father's  study,  with  that  sort  of  quiet 
pace  which  children  use  when  they  are  going  about  any  thing  they  do  not 
much  relish,  (for  the  motion  of  theYoot  is  a  never-varying  index  in  a  simple 
•aind,  of  the  feelings  of  the  heart.)  I  stood  behind  his  chair  as  he  sat  writ- 
ing, and  said,  '  Papa,  please  for  the  subject  of  my  theme,  to  day  ?  ' 

'  Hoc  a~gc,^  he  replied,  still  writing  oii. 

18 


206 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


"  Of  one  thing,"  continues  Mr.  Jardine,  "  the  youngest  student  must  be  . 
made  sensible,  from  the  evidence  of  his  own  consciousness,  that  he  cannot 
expect  to  compose  even  the  simplest  theme  without  directing  and  continuing  his 
power  of  thinking  upon  itP 

"  Instructions  cannot  be  too  plain  nor  too  minute,  when  du-ected  to 
young  persons  entering  upon  a  new  and  difficult  course  of  study.  The 
experience  of  the  perplexities  which  assail  the  juvenile  mmd,  m  its  first 
ei  deavors  to  discover  materials  and  to  find  expressions,  has  mduced  me 
to  lay  aside  the  authority  of  the  teacher,  and  to  place  myself  as  the  com- 
panion or  friend  of  the  student,  in  those  moments  when  his  difficulties  are 
most  formidable "  ,       n     •     t  ^-u 

"  I  suppose,  then, '  Emulation '  chosen  as  the  subject  of  a  simple  thenae, 
which  the  student  is  required  to  explain  and  illustrate,  from  lectures,  books 


"  •  wnat,  papa     1  saiu.  ^-^    t.    l.   e  •  ^ 

"  '  Hoc  age,  child,'  he  answered ;  *  Hoc  age  — go  and  make  the  best  ot  it, 
but  do  n't  disturb  me.'  -x  •  t 

"  '  Hoc  age,'  I  repeated,  as  I  went  down  stairs.  Hoc  age  —  it  is  Latm  ; 
I  know  it  is  Latin.  Hoc  is  this,  and  it  is  neuter,  and  the  ^ or 6.  thing  is 
understood ;  and  age  is  do ;  I  know  enough  of  Latin  for  this ;  therefore, 
Hoc  age  means,  Do  this  thing.' 

"  So  I  mended  a  pen,  and  took  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  wrote  Hoc  age 
in  a  fair  hand  at  the  top  of  the  paper;  and  then  I  added  the  translation; 
and  then  wrote  my  own  name  in  one  corner,  and  the  date  at  another ;  and 
then  looked  out  of  the  window,  and  up  to  the  ceiling,  and  wrote  again,  and 
actually  made  out  a  sentence  to  this  effect :  '  It  is  our  duty,  under  every 
circumstance  of  life,  to  attend  to  this  admonition ; '  and  there  I  stopped, 
for  the  question  suggested  itself,  to  wit,  what  admonition  ?  Further,  there 
fore  I  could  not  get,  and  when  my  father  called  me  to  dinner,  I  had  not  ad 
vanced  an  inch  beyond  the  full  round  stop  after  the  word  admonition. 

"  My  father  was  one  of  the  kindest  and  gentlest  of  parents,  and  when  I 
presented  my  vacant  sheet  to  him,  he  smiled,  and  said,  '  'T  is  as  much  as  I 
expected;  but  I  am  perfectly  satisfied,  nevertheless.  If  you  have  spent 
your  morning  in  considering  the  nature  of  the  injunction  meant  to  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  words  '  Hoc  age,'  you  have  not  lost  your  time."  My  father 
then  entered  into  an  explanation  of  the  subject,  and  pointed  out  to  me  that 
these  two  words  were  equivalent  to  the  Scripture  injunction,  Whatso- 
ever thine  hand  findeth  to  do,  do  it  with  thy  might.'  And  then  he  _  showed 
me  that  the  world  abounded  with  persons  who  never  seemed  to  give  then: 
full  and  undivided  attention  to  any  thing  which  they  had  to  do,  and  in 
consequence,  when  suddenly  called  upon  to  act  or  speak  with  promptitude, 
were  never  ready  and  never  had  their  words  or  their  actions  at  command. 
'  Hence,'  continued  he,  '  on  smaller  occasions,  they  are  for  ever  wasting 
their  time,  and  on  more  important  ones  losing  advantages  and  opportunities 
never  to  be  recovered.'  Mv  father  added  mucli  more  to  me  on  this  subject ; 
but  as  I  shall  hope,  in  what  folio v/s,  to  elucidate  what  he  said  by  a  very 
appropriate  example,  I  shall  cite  no  more  of  his  valuable  discourse,  with 
the  exception  of  one  remark  only,  which  was  most  important  ;  it  was  to 
this  effect :  that  the  salvation  of  the  soul  is  the  thing  to  be  done  in  the  first 
instance ;  the  '  Hoc  age,'  to  which  every  human  creature  should  principally 
attend  — all  other  concerns  being  made  subordinate  to  this  one  object,  and 
all  other  efforts  or  exertions  being  in  the  end  wholly  inefficient  in  producing 
the  happiness  of  any  individual,  when  this  one  thing  needful  is  neglected. 

The  whole  of  the  tale,  of  which  the  above  extract  is  merely  the  intro- 
duction, may  well  be  recommended  to  the  perusal  of  both  teachers  and 
jtudents. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


207 


and  observations,  in  such  a  way  as  to  communicate  a  distmct  account  of 
emulation  to  all  who  shall  read  his  essay.  Where  are  the  materials  to  be 
found  '  His  first  recourse  would  probably  be  to  authors  who  have  ^eated 
of  emulation,  from  whom  he  might  take  what  serves  his  purpose.  But  he 
is  instructed  that  there  is  a  nearer  and  much  more  fertile  source,  which 
will  furnish  him  with  materials,  providing  he  seek  for  them  m  the  proper 
way.  And  what  is  that  source  ?  His  own  mind,  working  upon  the  mate- 
rials which  he  already  possesses.  Let  him  put  the  question  to  himselt, 
What  is  emulation  ?  Here  let  him  recollect  the  early  scenes  in  which  this 
feelino-  was  first  excited.  On  the  verge  of  childhood,  he  must  remember 
the  lano-uao-e  used  in  amusements,  '  I  can  do  this,  and  you  cannot  I  shall 
be  at  that  mark  before  you.'  He  may  have,  perhaps,  read  the  beautiful 
description  of  Gray,  in  the  distant  prospect  of  Eton  College  : 

Who,  foremost,  now  deligMs  to  cleave 
With  pliaut  arms,  the  glassy  wave,  &c. 

Or  the  description  of  the  Trojan  games,  in  the  sixth  book  of  the 
^neid.  He  may  recollect  that,  when  at  school,  he  contended  for  the  hrst 
place  in  his  class,  or  may  be  now  contending  for  the  first  prize  at  college. 
Upon  the  recollection  of  these  scenes,  and  from  associated  feehngs  which 
exist  in  his  mind,  he  is  in  some  sort  prepared  to  answer  the  question, 
What  is  '  emulation  ? '  A  deshe  and  endeavor  to  excel  others,  —  to  be  the 
first  in  any  competition."  j      j  ^ 

"  From  whence  proceeds,  or  what  excites  this  desire  and  endeavor  ? 
From  obtaining  an  object  hrst,  which  other  competitors  wish_  to  possess. 
Is  it  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  object  of  competition  1  No ;  —  it  may  be  a 
sprig  of  laurel,  — a  palm-branch,  —  a  fox's  tail,  — a  medal  of  little  value, 
—  a  book,  a  seat  of  preferment  or  of  honor.  From  what,  then,  does  the 
object  receive  its  value  ?  It  is  the  chcumstance  of  obtaining  it  before 
other  competitors.  And  what  is  it  that  gives  such  value  to  the  being  hrst 
in  the  competition '?  It  is  the  presence  of  many  spectators  and  admirers. 
It  is  their  reflected  praise,  which  animates  the  competitors,  —  which  makes 
the  breast  of  the  student  palpitate  when  he  receives  the  prize.  Let  the 
competition  take  nlace  in  a  desert,  where  there  are  no  spectators,  the  charm 
is  dissolved,  and  the  competitors  walk  over  the  course  without  pleasm-e  or 
expectation."  .    •  i 

"  Acrain,  what  are  the  effects  of  emulation  ?  When  this  principle  oper- 
ates with  full  effect,  and  under  control  of  virtue  and  honor,  it  produces 
vigorous  conflict,  persevering  exertion,  contempt  of  difficulties  and  dan- 
o-ere,  increasinc^  hopes,  eager  expectations,  and,  in  the  mom.ents  of  success, 
exquisite  delig"ht.  The  student  may  have  a  clearer  view  of  this  generous 
and  energetic  feehng,  by  turning  his  attention  to  the  histories  of  great 
characters  and  great  events,  and  distinguishing  emulation  from  the  effects 
of  other  feelings  not  unfrequently  associated  with  it.  He  will  thus  be 
enabled  to  draw  a  line  of  distinction  between  it  and  its  collaterals,  ambi- 
tion and  fame.  These  fix  upon  tlie  possession  of  their  objects  without  any 
view  of  competition,  or  of  the  means  by  which  they  may  be  obtained, 
whereas  the  pleasures  of  emulation  spring  from  the  love  of  excellence  and 
superiority." 

"  The  experience  of  competitions,  in  which  tlie  student  has  been  en- 
gaged, or  of  tliose  which  he  has  observed,  will  suggest  to  him,  that  emula 
tion  m  its  purest  form  can  only  take  place  where  the  prize  is  won  by  the 
personal  exertions  of  the  individual.    Wlien  any  undua  means  are  used 


208 


AJD3  TO  ENGLISH  COilPOSITIOX. 


to  obtain  it,  or  any  obstacle  inclirectlv  thrown  in  the  way  of  a  rival  com 
petitor.  the  generous  flame  of  emulation  is  extinguished,  and  a  meaa, 
degrading  spmt  is  substituted  in  its  place.  One  would  think  that  the 
mortilication  which  the  student  must  sntfer,  when  he  receives  a  prize 
which  he  is  conscious  he  did  not  deserve,  should  dispose  him  to  reject  it 
as  altogether  unworthy  of  his  acceptance.  The  student  cannot  have  for 
gotten  the  manner  in  wliich  the  friendly  stratagem  of  Nisus,  in  favor  of 
Euryalus,  was  received  by  the  other  coinpetitors  at  the  celebration  of  the 
Trojan  games." 

••  An  enlarged  view  should  be  taken  of  the  field  of  competition.  Tha< 
field  may  be  called  up  by  the  imagination.  The  person  in  whom  the  true 
spark  of  emulation  is  kindled,  may  imagine  himselt  placed  upon  the  same 
arena  with  the  competitors  of  other  centmies  and  other  ages.  Virgil  en- 
deavored  to  rival  the  fame  of  Homer,  and  Cicero  that  of  Demosthenes 
^Mien  Ceesar  passed  the  statue  of  Alexander,  he  is  said  to  have  burst  into 
tears,  because  the  Macedonian  had  sm-passed  him  in  mihtary  achieve 
ments.  "When  ambition  and  emulation  are  conjoined  in  the  same'  character 
occupied  in  similar  exploits,  it  requires  some  discrimination  to  determine 
vrhat  belongs  to  each.'' 

This  sketch,  of  cotirse,  is  not  intended  as  a  specimen  of  a  simple  theme 
on  emulation,  but  merely  as  a  general  outline  of  the  materials,  with  the 
view  of  pointing  out  to  the  student  the  course  he  should  take  to  find  them. 
He  has  only  to  embrace  the  subject  of  the  theme  closely, —  to  apply 
to  his  own  mind  for  light  and  knowledge,  —  to  press  himself  with  inter- 
rogatories relative  to  his  demands,  —  to  follow  the  natural  associations 
of  things,  and  he  will  soon  find  materials  enough,  and  arrive  at  much 
information  which  he  could  not  otherwise  have  conceived  to  be  within  his 
reach.  The  concluding  step  is  to  select  from  these  materials,  and  to 
arrange  them  according  to  the  particular  end  he  has  in  view.  If  this  part 
of  his  work  be  rightly  pertoiTued,  he  will  not  find  much  difficultv  in 
suitably  expressing  what  he  clearly  and  distinctly  knows." 

[A  list  of  subjects  for  Exercises  will  be  found  in  the  last  article,  tmder  the 
head  of  Eegular  Subjects.] 

Jf  the  course  thus  laid  down  by  Sir.  Jardine  for  the  management  of 
themes,  be  found  too  loose  or  too  diflBctdt,  the  student  may  follow  the 
more  mechanical  one  of  !Mr.  "Walker.  His  course  for  regular  subjects  or 
simple  themes  has  already  been  given.  The  following  is  his  course,  with 
regard  to  themes  in  general :  * 

After  the  Theme  or  Truth  is  laid  cIo\Yn,  the  Proof  consists 
of  the  following  parts  : 

1st.  The  Proposition  or  Xarrative  ;  Tvhere  we  show  the 
meaning  of  the  Theme,  by  amplifying,  paraphrasing,  or 
explaining  it  more  at  large. 


*  It  will  be  noticed  that  ^Mr.  "talker  designates  sirnple  tlieme^s  as  KegiUai 
Svhjects ;  while  he  embraces,  under  the  term  of  Theme,  those  only  whi^h  la 
general  are  called  complex  themes.  This  accords  with  his  definition  o^  a 
thome  which  he  say?  is  the  "  proving  of  some  truth." 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


209 


2d.  The  Reason  ;  where  we  prove  the  truth  of  the  Theme 
by  some  reason  or  argument. 

3d.  The  Confirmation ;  where  we  show  the  unreasonable- 
ness of  the  contrary  opinion ;  or,  if  we  cannot  do  that,  we  try 
to  bring  some  other  reason  in  support  of  the  former. 

4:th.  The  Simile ;  where  we  bring  in  something  in  nature 
or  art,  similar  to  what  is  affirmed  in  our  Theme,  for  illustrating 
the  truth  of  it. 

5th.  The  Example ;  where  we  bring  instances  from  History 
tG  corroborate  the  truth  of  our  Theme. 

6th.  The  testimony  or  Quotation  ;  where  we  bring  in  pro- 
verbial sentences  or  passages  from  good  authors,  which  show 
that  others  think  as  we  do. 

7th.  The  Conclusion;  when  we  sum  up  the  whole  and 
show  the  practical  use  of  the  Theme,  by  concluding  with  some 
pertinent  observations.  * 

Example, 

TOO  MUCH  FAMILIARITY  GENERALLY  BREEDS  CONTEIVIPT. 

Proposition.  There  is  no  observation  more  generally  true 
than  that  our  esteem  of  a  person  seldom  rises  in  proportion  to 
our  intimacy  with  him. 

Reason.  Such  is  the  general  disguise  men  wear,  that  their 
good  qualities  commonly  appear  at  first,  and  their  bad  ones  are 
discovered  by  degrees ;  and  this  gradual  discovery  of  their 


*  The  rules  are  thus  versified  by  Mr.  Walker 

The  Proposition^  the  Reason^  the  Confirmation,  ttie  Simile^  the  Example, 
the  Testimony,  and  the  Conclusion. 

The  Theme  at  large  the  Proposition  gives, 
And  the  same  thought  in  other  words  conceives. 
The  Reason  shows  the  Proposition  true, 
By  bringing  arguments  and  proofs  to  view ; 
The  Confirmation  proves  th'  opinion  right, 
By  showing  how  absurd 's  the  opposite. 
If  that 's  not  to  be  done,  it  tries  to  explore 
Some  proof  in  aid  of  what  was  given  before. 
The  Simile  an  apt  resemblance  brings, 
Which  shows  the  theme  is  true  in  other  things ; 
The  Example  instances  from  History  draws, 
That  by  mankind's  experience  prove  our  cause: 
The  Testimony  to  the  wise  a,ppeals, 
And  by  their  suff'rage  our  opinion  seals. 
Some  useful  observations  come  at  last, 
As  a  conclusion  di*awn  from  what  is  past. 
18* 


210  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


failings  and  weaknesses,  must  necessarilj  lessen  our  opinion 
of  them. 

Confirmation.  It  is  the  nature  of  man  to  have  a  high 
opinion  of  any  excellence  he  is  not  fully  acquainted  with :  he 
is  prone  to  imagine  it  much  greater  than  it  really  is ;  and 
therefore  when  it  becomes  thoroughly  known,  the  expectation 
is  at  an  end,  and  the  good  qualities  which  we  at  first  admired, 
having  no  longer  the  recommendation  of  novelty,  become  not 
only  less  striking,  but  often  produce  indifference  and  contempt. 

Simile.  As  the  frogs  in  the  fable  were  at  first  terrified  by 
the  noise  of  the  falling  of  the  log  which  Jupiter  threw  down 
into  the  lake  for  their  king,  but  by  degrees  became  so  familiar 
with  their  wooden  monarch  as  to  despise  it ;  so  kings  have 
often  found  by  mixing  too  familiarly  with  their  subjec^ts,  and 
masters  by  being  too  free  with  their  servants,  that  they  ha.ve 
lost  their  importance  in  proportion  to  their  condescension. 

Example.  James  the  First,  King  of  England,  was  a  man 
of  considerable  learning,  and  had  as  few  bad  qualities  as  the 
generality  of  his  subjects  ;  but,  by  jesting  with  his  attendants, 
and  descending  to  childish  familiarity  with  them,  scarcely  any 
King  of  England  was  held  in  greater  contempt. 

Testimony.  A  celebrated  teacher  has  said  that  young  peo- 
ple cannot  be  too  much  on  their  guard  against  falling  into  too 
great  famiharity  Avith  their  companions ;  for  they  are  sure  to 
lose  the  good  opinion  of  those  with  whom  they  are  familiar. 

Conclusion.  It  may,  therefore,  be  laid  down,  as  confirmed 
by  reason  and  experience,  that  nothing  requires  greater  cau- 
tion in  our  conduct,  than  our  behaviour  to  those  with  whom 
we  are  most  intimate. 

JExercises. 

The  necessity  of  Exercise. 

The  proper  use  of  Amusements. 

On  Laudable  Exertion. 

The  importance  of  a  good  character. 

The  Folly  of  Dissipation. 

Want  of  Piety  arises  from  the  want  of  sensibility. 

The  importance  of  Hospitality  and  the  civilities  of  common  lif« 

Religion  consistent  with  tme  politeness. 

On  the  pleasures  of  Conversation. 

The  dignity  of  virtue  amid  corrupt  examples. 

The  duties  and  pleasures  of  Reflection. 

The  obligations  of  Learning  to  the  Christian  Religion. 

On  Decency  as  the  only  motive  of  our  apparent  vii-tucs. 


ATDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


211 


The  importance  of  the  government  of  temper. 
The  value  of  the  art  of  printing. 
The  hanefiil  effects  of  Indulgence. 
The  mtiuence  of  the  Great. 

The  Beauty  and  Happiness  of  an  open  behaviour  and  an  mgenuous 

Disposition. 
The  utiUty  of  religious  ceremonies. 
A  good  heart  necessary  to  enjoy  the  beauties  of  nature. 
The  wisdom  of  aiming  at  perfection. 

Family  Disagreements  the  frequent  cause  of  immoral  conduct. 

The  selfishness  of  men  of  the  world. 

The  necessity  of  Temperance  to  the  health  of  the  mind. 

Advantages  of  music  as  a  recreation. 

Necessity  of  attention  to  things  as  well  as  books. 

The  influence  of  fashion. 

An  honorable  death  preferable  to  a  degraded  life. 


LXVII. 
ABSTRACTS. 

An  abstract  is  a  summary,  or  epitome,  containing  the  sub- 
stance, a  general  view,  or  the  principal  heads  of  a  treatise  or 
writing. 

The  taking  of  abstracts  from  sermons,  speeches,  essays,  &c.  is  an  exer- 
cise which  the  student  will  find  exceedingly  useful  in  the  cultivation  of 
hajjits  of  attention,  as  well  as  of  analysis.  In  writing  abstracts,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  endeavor  to  recall  the  exact  language  of  the  original,  the 
purpose  of  the  exercise  is  fully  subserved,  if  the  principal  idea  be  recorded 

JExample. 

ON  DIVERSIONS. 

It  is  generally  taken  for  granted,  by  most  young  people  of  fortune,  that 
diversion  is  the  principle  object  of  life ;  and  this  opinion  is  often  carried 
to  such  an  excess,  that  pleasure  seems  to  be  the  great  ruling  principle 
which  directs  all  their  thoughts,  words,  and  actions,  and  which  makes  all 
the  serious  duties  of  life  heavy  and  disgusting.  This  opinion,  however,  is 
00  less  absurd  than  unhappy,  as  may  be  shown  by  taking  the  other  side  of 
the  question,  and  proving  that  there  is  no  pleasure  and  enjoyment  of  life 
mthout  labor. 

The  words  commonly  used  to  signify  diversion  are  these  three, namely, 
relaxation,  amusement,  and  recreation;  and  the  precise  meaning  of  these 
words  may  lead  us  to  very  useful  instruoti»n.  The  idea  of  relaxation  is 
taken  from  a  bow,  which  must  be  unbent  when  it  is  not  wanted  to  be  used, 


212 


AIDS  TO   ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


that  its  elasticity  may  be  preserved.  Amusement  literally  means  an  oc 
casional  forsaking  of  the  Muses,  or  the  laying  aside  our  books  when  we 
are  weary  with  study ;  and  recreation  is  the  refreshing  or  recreating  of 
our  spirits  when  they  are  exhausted  with  labor,  that  they  may  be  ready, 
in  due  time,  to  resume  it  again. 

From  these  considerations  it  follows  that  the  idle  man  who  has  no  work 
can  have  no  play ;  for,  how  can  he  be  relaxed  who  is  never  bent  1  How 
can  he  leave  the  Muses  who  is  never  with  them  ?  How  can  play  refresh 
him  who  is  never  exhausted  with  business  ? 

When  diversion  becomes  the  business  of  life,  its  nature  is  changed; 
all  rest  presupposes  labor.  He  that  has  no  variety  can  have  no  enjoy- 
ment ;  he  is  surfeited  with  pleasure,  and  in  the  better  hours  of  reflection 
would  find  a  refuge  in  labor  itself.  And,  indeed,  it  may  be  observed,  that 
there  is  not  a  more  miserable,  as  well  as  a  more  worthless  being,  than  a 
young  person  of  fortune,  who  has  nothing  to  do  but  find  out  some  new 
way  of  doing  nothing. 

A  sentence  is  passed  upon  all  poor  men,  that  if  they  will  not  work,  they 
shall  not  eat ;  and  a  similar  sentence  seems  passed  upon  the  rich,  who,  n 
they  are  not  in  some  respect  useful  to  the  public,  are  almost  sure  to  be- 
come burthensome  to  themselves.  This  blessing  goes  along  with  every 
useful  employment ;  it  keeps  a  man  on  good  terms  with  himself,  and 
consequently  in  good  spirits,  and  in  a  capacity  of  pleasing  and  being 
pleased  with  every  innocent  gratification. 

As  labor  is  necessary  to  procure  an  appetite  to  the  body,  there  must 
also  be  some  previous  exercise  of  the  mind  to  prepare  it  for  enjoyment  j 
indulgence  on  any  other  terms  is  false  in  itself,  and  ruinous  in  its  conse- 
quences. Mirth  degenerates  into  senseless  riot,  and  gratification  soon 
terminates  in  satiety  and  disgust. 

Ahstract  of  the  above. 

1.  It  is  a  common  error  to  suppose  that  diversion  should 
form  the  business  of  life,  the  contrary  being  true. 

2.  This  is  proved  by  the  derivation  of  the  words  used  to 
express  diversion  —  viz.,  relaxation,  amusement,  and  recrea- 
tion. 

3.  They  who  have  no  labor  can  have  no  diversion. 

4.  When  diversion  becomes  labor,  it  is  no  longer  diversion. 

5.  All  men  must  have  occupation,  or  be  miserable. 

6.  There  must  be  labor  of  mind  as  well  as  labor  of  the 
body,  for  the  well  being  of  both. 

Exercises. 

Exercises  in  the  practice  of  taking  abstracts  are  frequently  presented 
by  the  preacher.  They  may  also  be  found  in  volumes  of  sermons,  in  pe- 
riodical papers  and  essays,  in  common  text-books  in  literary  institutions, 
and  in  the  wide  circle  of  English  literature  It  is  not,  therefore;  deemed 
important  to  present  them  in  detail  in  this  volume. 


AIDS  TO   ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


213 


Lxvni. 

The  faculty  of  invention,  it  is  thought,  has  been  sufficiently 
exercised  in  the  preceding  principles  to  enable  the  student  now 
to  fill  out  an  essay  from  heads,  outlines,  or  abstracts,  as  in 
the  following 

Example. 

ON  INDEPENDENCE. 
HEADS. 

1.  No  being  perfectly  independent  but  God. 

2.  The  dependence  created  by  trade  and  commerce  is,  in 
fact,  a  kind  of  independence. 

3.  Pecuniary  dependence  the  most  humiliating  of  any. 

4.  Pecuniary  dependence  naturally  degrades  the  mind  and 
depraves  the  heart. 

5.  Young  people  ought  to  be  particularly  careful  to  avoid 
pecuniary  dependence. 

The  Essay  founded  on  the  ahove  heads. 

Independence,  in  the  largest  and  most  unlimited  sense,  is  to  created 
beings,  a  state  impossible.  No  being  is  perfectly  independent,  but  the 
One  Supreme  Being :  all  other  beings,  by  their  veiy  nature,  are  dependent, 
in  the  first  place,  on  their  Creator,  and  in  the  second,  on  their  fellow- 
creatures  ;  from  whose  good-will  and  assistance  they  derive  their  chief 
happiness. 

This  dependence,  however,  consists  in  a  mutual  interchange  of  good 
offices ;  in  such  a  suitable  return  of  favors  received,  as  makes  each  party 
obliged  to  the  other,  and  at  the  same  time  leaves  each  other  independent. 
This  kind  of  dependence  we  find  in  different  countries,  that  trade  in  com- 
modities which  are  necessary  to  both  ;  by  which  means,  thoy  become  use- 
ful, but  not  indebted  to  each  other. 

But  the  most  general  sense  of  independence  is  that  of  property.  The 
circulating  medium,  called  money,  and  which  is  the  representative  of  al 
most  every  thing  that  we  wish,  has  in  it  something  so  sacred,  that  we  can 
never  receive  it  gratuitously,  without  losing  our  dignity  and  becoming 
depend  3nt.  We  may  . ask  for  favors  of  another  kind,  and  though  they  are 
granted  to  us,  we  are  not  degraded ;  but  if  once  we  ask  a  pecuniary  favor, 
we  lose  our  independence,  and  become  enslaved.  No  more  can  we  con- 
verse with  our  creditor  on  the  same  equal  terms  that  we  did  before.  No 
more  can  we  6ontrovert  his  opinion,  and  assert  our  own :  a  conscious  in- 


214 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


feriority  has  deprived  us  of  freedom,  and  we  are  the  slave  of  him  w^ho  was 
formerly  our  equal. 

But  the  most  deplorable  part  of  this  picture  is,  that  dependence  not  only 
enslaves  the  mind,  but  tends  to  deprave  the  heart.  We  feel  ourselves 
degraded  by  receiving  pecuniary  favors,  and  conscious  of  what  our  creditor 
must  think  of  us,  when  we  cannot  return  them,  we  are  apt  to  view  hits 
with  an  eye  of  jealousy  and  distaste ;  and  thus  become  guilty  of  one  of  the 
worst  of  crimes,  the  crime  of  ingratitude. 

Young  people,  who  know  but  little  either  of  themselves  or  of  the  world, 
are  apt  to  think  such  pictures  of  human  nature  misanthropical.  They 
are,  however,  such  as  have  been  drawn  by  the  experience  of  all  ages  and 
nations ;  and  concur  with  several  other  traits  to  show  us  the  natural  de- 
pravity of  man.  If,  therefore,  we  Avish  to  preserve  ourselves  independent, 
—  if  we  wish  to  maintain  a  proper  dignity  of  character  and  freedom  of 
opinion,  —  if  we  desire,  above  all  things,  to  preserve  ourselves  from  that 
depravity  of  heart,  which  we  are  so  apt  to  slide  into  when  we  cannot  pay 
our  debts,  —  let  us  beware  of  borrowing  money ;  for,  as  our  immortal 
Shakspeare  says, 

"  A  loan  oft  losetli  both  itself  and  friend, 
And  borrowing  dulls  the  edge  of  husbandry." 

Exercises. 

On  tJie  Multiplicatimi  of  Boohs. 

1.  No  amusements  more  attainable,  or  attended  with  more  satisfaction, 
than  those  derived  from  literary  subjects. 

2.  The  student  can  enjoy  in  his  library  all  that  has  employed  the  active 
mind  of  man. 

3.  Eeading  especially  gratifying  to  those  who  are  confined  by  profession 
or  by  circumstances. 

4.  Much  of  the  student's  time  necessarily  employed  in  retracing  the 
progress  of  those  who  have  gone  before  him. 

5.  Modern  authors  justify  to  themselves  and  others  the  addition  whiih 
they  make  to  the  number  of  books. 

2. 

On  the  means  of  rendering  old  age  honorable  and  comfortable. 

1.  Man  degenerates  in  his  nature  as  he  advances  in  life. 

2.  That  state  is  Avretched,  when  the  heart  loses  its  sensibility. 

3.  Old  age,  though  insensible  to  many  pleasures,  has  a  keen  perception 
of  pain. 

4.  Old  age  not  always  attended  with  natural  infirmity. 

5.  A  life  of  temperance  preserves  the  equanimity  of  the  mind. 

6.  A  devotional  spirit  will  afford  the  most  lively  enjoyments. 

7.  These  enjoyments  increase  with  the  nearness  of  the  approach  of 
fruition. 

8.  That  life  honorable  which  affords  the  most  useful  lessons  of  virtue. 

9.  That  hfe  comfortable,  which,  although  unattended  with  absolute  en 
*oyment,  has  a  solace  for  pain  and  a  prospect  of  enjoyment  near. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


215 


3. 

Moderation  in  our  wishes  necessary. 

!.  Man's  active  mind  seldom  satisfied  with  its  present  condition. 

2.  Kestlessness  and  excitement  prevalent. 

3.  Ambition  and  hope  constantly  deceive  us  with  delusive  dreams. 

4.  If  we  dv,-ell  with  satisfaction  on  the  ideal,  the  real  can  never  fulfil 
our  expectations. 

5  Few  have  realized  their  expectations.  Many  have  been  disappointed 
and  deceived. 

6.  What  is  rational  and  attainable,  should,  therefore,  be  the  only  objects 
cf  desire. 

4. 

Wealth  and  fortune  afford  no  ground  for  envy. 

1.  "Envy  most  generally  excited  against  wealth  and  fortune. 

2.  The  rich  and  fortunate  are  not  always  happy. 

3.  We  are  deceived  by  appearances. 

4.  The  poor  are  exempted  from  many  evils  to  which  the  rich  are 
subjected. 

5.  The  rich  have  troubles  from  which  the  poor  are  exempted. 

G.  The  real  wants  and  enjoyments  of  life  are  few,  and  are  common  to 
almost  all  classes. 

7.  If  the  balance  of  happiness  be  adjusted  fairly,  it  will  be  found  that 
all  conditions  of  life  fare  equally  well. 


LXIX. 

DIVISIONS  OF  A  SUBJECT. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  of  the  departments  of  composition 
consists  in  methodizing,  or  arranging,  a  subject ;  laying  it  out,  as 
it  were,  and  forming  a  sort  of  plan  on  which  to  treat  it.  The 
writer  may  be  figuratively  said  to  make  a  map  of  it  in  his 
own  mind,  ascertaining  its  boundaries,  that  is  to  say,  the  col- 
lateral subjects  with  which  it  is  connected,  its  dependencies, 
influences,  and  prominent  traits.  And  as  no  two  geographers 
would  probably  lay  down  the  same  country  exactly  in  the 
same  way  —  some  giving  special  attention  to  the  mountains, 
others  to  the  rivers,  others  to  the  sea-coast,  others  to  the  chief 
towns,  &c.,  so  no  two  writers  would  probably  "  map  out "  a 
subject  in  the  same  way.  On  this  subject  the  following  direc- 
tions will  probably  be  useful  to  the  student : 


216  '  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Having  before  his  mind  the  precise  object  of  inquiry,  and  having  also 
etated,  either  in  a  formal  manner  or  by  implication,  the  proposition  to  be 
supported,  the  writer  now  should  turn  his  attention  to  the  formation  of  his 
plan ;  or,  in  other  words,  he  should  determine  in  what  order  and  connec- 
tion his  thoughts  should  be  presented.  Thus  are  formed  tlie  heads  or 
divisions  of  a  composition.  These  must  correspond  in  their  nature  to  the 
leading  design  and  character  of  the  performance. 

In  argumentative  discussions,  tlie  heads  are  distinct  propositions  or  ar- 
guments, designed  to  support  and  establish  the  leading  proposition. 

In  persuasive  writings,  the  heads  are  the  different  considerations  which 
the  writer  would  place  before  his  readers,  to  influence  their  minds,  and 
induce  them  to  adopt  the  opinions  and  pursue  the  course  which  he 
recommends. 

In  didactic  writings,  they  are  the  different  points  of  instruction. 

In  narrative  and  descriptive  writings,  they  are  the  ditferent  events  and 
scenes  which  are  successively  brought  before  the  mind. 

No  rules  of  universal  application  can  be  given  to  aid  the  writer  in  form- 
ing the  plan,  or  methodizing  his  subject.  His  plan  must  vary  with  the 
subject  and  the  occasion,  Koom  is  also  left  for  the  exercise  of  the  taste 
and  judgment  of  the  witer.  But  although  no  special  rules  can  be 
applied,-the  following  general  directions  may  be  serviceable,  so  far,  at  least, 
as  they  may  prevent  or  correct  a  faulty  division : 

First.  Every  division  should  lead  directly  to  the  pui-pose  which  the 
writer  has  in  view,  and  be  strictly  subservient  to  the  rules  of  unity. 

Second.  One  division  must  not  ijclude  another,  but  be  distinct  and  in 
dependent  in  itself 

Third.  The  different  divisions  should,  so  far  as  may  be,  be  so  compre 
hensive,  as  to  include  all  that  can  with  propriety  be  said  in  relation  to  the 
subject,  and,  when  taken  together,  present  the  idea  of  one  whole. 

In  illustration  of  these  rules,  let  us  suppose  that  it  is  proposed  to  vmte 
an  essay  on  Filial  Duties.  The  writer  designs  to  show,  as  the  object  of 
the  essay,  that  children  should  render  to  their  parents  obedience  and  love. 
His  division  is  as  follows :  —  Childi-en  should  render  obedience  and  love 
to  their  parents. 

1.  Because  they  are  under  obligations  to  their  parents  for  benefits  re- 
ceived from  them. 

2.  Because  in  this  way  they  secure  their  own  happiness. 

3.  Because  God  has  commanded  them  to  honor  their  parents. 

In  this  division  there  is  a  manifest  reference  to  the  object  of  the  writer. 
The  different  heads  are  also  distinct  from  each  other,  and,  taken  together, 
give  a  sufficiently  full  view  of  the  subject.  It  is  in  accordance,  then,  with 
the  preceding  directions.  Let  us  now  suppose  that  the  following  division 
had  been  made :  —  Children  should  render  love  and  obedience  to  their 
parents. 

1.  Because  they  are  under  obligations  to  them  for  benefits  received 
from  them. 

2.  Because  their  parents  furnish  them  with  food  and  clothing. 

3.  Because  in  this  way  they  secure  their  own  happiness. 

4.  Because  there  is  a  satisfaction  and  peace  of  conscience  in  the  dis- 
cnarge  of  filial  duties. 

This  division  is  faulty,  since  the  different  parts  are  not  distinct  from 
each  other.  The  second  head  is  included  under  the  first,  and  the  fourth 
under  the  third. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


217 


A  iliird  division  might  be  made  as  follows :  —  Cliildivn  should  reu.dcr 
obedience  and  love  to  their  parents. 

1.  Because  they  should  do  what  is  right. 

2.  Because  in  this  way  they  secure  their  own  happiness. 

3.  Because  God  has  commanded  them  to  love  their  parencs. 

It  may  be  said  of  the  first  part  of  this  division,  that  it  has  no  particular  . 
reference  to  the  object  of  the  writer.  It  is  a  truth  of  general  application, 
and  may  with  equal  propriety  be  assigned  in  enforcing  any  other  duty,  as 
well  as  that  of  filial  obedience.  It  is  also  implied  in  the  other  heads, 
eince  children  do  what  is  right,  when,  in  obedience  to  God's  command, 
they  seek  to  secure  their  own  happiness.  * 

In  the  divisions  made  in  the  mind  of  the  writer  in  forming  his  plan,  he 
may  preseat  them  as  independent  topics,  to  be  united  by  the  reasoning 
which  he  employs  in  support  of  each ;  or  as  distinct  propositions,  each 
of  which  has  a  particular  bearing  on  what  he  purposes  to  prove  or  to 
advance 

Example  of  Independent  Topics. 

ON  CHARITY. 

Senses  in  which  it  is  used  in  Scripture. 
The  kindred  virtues  with  which  it  is  allied. 
Its  operation  on  individuals. 
On  Society. 

Field  of  action  extended  by  Christianity. 

Example  of  Distinct  Propositions, 

1.  Charity  employed  in  the  Scriptures  to  denote  all  the  good  affections 
which  we  should  bear  to  one  another. 

2.  Charity  the  most  important  duty  enjoined  in  Holy  "Writ. 

3.  Charity  is  an  active  principle. 

4.  Charity  does  not  give  every  man  an  equal  title  to  onr  love. 

5.  Charity  produces  peculiar  and  important  effects  on  individual  char 
acter. 

Exercises. 

The  importance  of  a  good  education. 
Happiness  founded  on  rectitude  of  conduct. 
Virtue  man's  highest  interest. 

The  misfortunes  of  men  mostly  chargeable  on  themselves. 


*  The  question  may  arise,  says  Mr.  Newman,  from  whose  valuable 
treatise  on  Ehetoric  the  above  directions  are  principally  derived.  Is  it  of 
importance  distinctly  to  state  the  plan  which  is  pursued  in  treating  any 
subject  ?  To  this  question  he  replies,  that  in  the  treatment  of  intricate  sub- 
jects, where  there  are  many  divisions,  and  where  it  is  of  importance  that 
the  order  and  connection  of  each  part  should  be  carefully  observed,  to  state 
the  divisions  is  the  better  course.  But  it  is  far  from  being  essential. 
Though  we  never  should  write  without  forming  a  distinct  plan  for  our  own 
use  yet  it  may  often  be  best  to  let  others  gather  this  plan  from  reading  our 
productions.  A  plan  is  a  species  of  scaffolding  to  aid  us  in  erecting  tlse 
nuiiding.  When  the  edifice  is  finished,  we  may  let  the  scaffolding  fall. 
19 


218 


-AJDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


The  soul  is  immortal. 
God  is  eternal. 

Omniscience  and  omnipresence  of  the  Deity. 
Diffidence  of  our  abilities  a  mark  of  wisdom. 
The  importance  of  order  ia  the  distribution  of  time. 
Change  of  external  condition  often  adverse  to  virtue. 
The  mortifications  of  vice  greater  than  those  of  xirtne. 
Fortitude  of  mind. 

The  influence  of  devotion  on  the  happiness  of  mankind. 

The  power  of  custom. 

The  real  and  soUd  enjoyments  of  life. 

The  vanity  of  wealth. 

Nothing  formed  in  vain. 

Bemarh  The  plan,  or  the  right  division  of  a  composition,  should  "be  a 
prominent  object  -of  attention  and  study.  The  young  writer  will  find  it 
a  very  useful  exercise,  in  all  his  compositions,  to  lay  down  his  plan  first, 
before  wiiting.  In  this  way  habits  of  consecutive  thinking  will  be  formed 
and  a  principle  of  order  established  in  the  mind,  which  will  be  imparted 
to  every  subject  of  its  contemplation. 


LXX. 
AiDPLIFICATION. 

Amplification  may  be  defined  an  enlargement,  by  variou 
examples  and  proofs. 

Various  ai^e  tbe  ways  in  wMcb  writers  amplify,  or  enlarge, 
upon  the  propositions  which  tliey  advance.  The  ingenuity  of 
the  writer  may  here  have  full  play,  providing  that  he  do  not 
violate  the  unity  of  his  subject.  There  are,  however,  some 
general  principles  which  the  student  should  have  in  view  in 
the  performance  of  such  an  exercise. 

The  principal  object  of  amplification  is  to  exhibit  more  fully  the  mean- 
ing of  what  has  been  advanced.    This  maybe  done  as  follows  : 

1.  Bv  formal  definitions  and  paraphrases  of  the  propositions  forming 
the  heads  of  a  subject.  This  is  particularly  requisite  when  the  words 
employed  in  the  proposition  are  ambiguous,  new,  or  employed  differently 
from  their  common  acceptation. 

2.  Bv  presenting  the  proposition  in  various  forms  of  expression,  avoid- 
ing absolute  tautology,  and  showin,^  m  wtiat  general  or  restricted  sense 
the  words  employed  should  be  received,  explaining  the  manner,  also,  ir 
which  to  guard  against  mistakes. 

3.  By  f  iving  individual  instances,  explanatorv  of  the  general  proposi 
tion. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSfTION. 


219 


4.  By  similes,  comparisons,  antitheses,  and  historical  allusions. 

Writings  which  are  designed  to  excite  emotions,  and  to  influence  the 
will,  require  a  more  extended  amplification  than  those  which  are  argument- 
ative, or  those  addressed  directly  to  the  understanding.  In  the  former 
case,  it  is  desirable  that  the  mind  should  be  led  to  dwell  on  what  is  pre- 
sented to  it,  and  to  notice  whatever  is  fitted  and  designed  to  excite  the 
desired  emotion.  Hence,  copiousness  of  detail,  and  a  full  and  minute 
statement  of  attending  circumstances,  are  required.  But  an  argument 
should  be  stated  concisely  and  simply,  excepting  only  when  it  is  in  itself 
abstruse  and  complex,  and  when  it  is  addressed  to  minds  uncultivated 
and  unaccustomed  to  connected  reasonings.  In  such  cases,  even  an  ar 
gument  may,  with  propriety,  be  amphfied  or  enlarged. 

The  successful  exercise  of  amplification  depends, 

1.  Upon  extent  and  command  of  knowledge ; 

2.  On  the  power  of  illustration ; 

3.  On  definiteness  of  thought  in  our  reasonings ; 

4.  On  copiousness  of  expression. 

[The  subjects  of  the  Exercises,  in  various  parts  of  this  volume,  will  pr«^ 
sent  a  sufficient  opportunity  for  the  student  to  practise  the  art  of  ampk 
fication.] 


LXXI. 

ILLUSTRATION  OE  A  SUBJECT. 

Illustration  properly  signifies  tlie  rendering  clear  what  is 
obscure  or  abstruse. 

It  is  often  the  case,  that  subjects  for  consideration  are  pre- 
sented which  at  first  view  appear  to  afford  no  avenue  by 
which  they  may  be  approached.  All  appears  dark  around 
them ;  the  subjects  themselves  appear  isolated  and  distinct 
from  any  form  of  close  examination.  But  as  they  are  re- 
volved in  the  mind,  some  connecting  point  is  discovered,  in 
which  they  may  at  last  be  seen  to  be  united  or  closely  allied 
to  other  subjects,  and  plain  and  clear  deductions  and  infer- 
ences may  be  drawn  from  them.  The  process  by  which  the 
illustration  of  such  subjects  may  be  effected,  is  thus  explained 
by  Mr.  Jardine,  in  his  remarks  on  what  he  calls  "  The  Fourth 
Order  of  Themes."  * 

"  To  investigate,  is,  in  the  original  sense  of  the  word,  to  search  out  for  an 
absent  object,  by  discovering  and  following  out  the  traces  which  it  has  left 


*  Jardine's  "  Outlines  of  a  Philosophical  Education,"  page  322. 


220 


AIDS  TO    ENGLISH  COMrOSITION. 


m  the  path  over  which  it  has  passed.  Thus,  we  attempt  to  discover  a  per 
son  who  has  concealed  himself,  by  niarlcing  his  footsteps  towards  the  place 
of  his  retreat ;  and  on  the  same  principle,  the  hound  may  be  literally  said 
to  investigate  the  track  of  the  fox,  by  pursuing  the  scent,  which  remains  on 
the  line  along  which  the  latter  had  directed  his  flight.  * 

"  To  these  familiar  processes  may  be  compared  the  keen  and  earnest 
search  of  the  mind,  in  its  endeavors  to  ascertain  the  unknown  causes  and 
principles  of  things.  Indeed,  the  perplexed  anxiety  Avhich  the  set-dog  often 
exhibits  in  the  search  of  game,  affords  a  striking  example  of  the  careful, 
anxious,  and  occasionally  disappointed  state  of  mind  which  the  philosopher 
frequently  experiences  in  his  researches  after  truth.  Trusting  to  a  persua- 
sion, natural  to  the  human  mind,  that  every  effect  must  have  a  cause,  and 
that  the  connection  betAveen  causes  and  their  effects  is  constant  and  'uni 
form,  the  student  of  nature  proceeds  through  the  labyrinth  of  phenomena, 
guided  by  the  chain  which  associates  every  event  he  witnesses  with  some 
prior  event,  which  he  infers  must  have  preceded  it,  until  at  length  he 
arrives  at  that  ultimate  point,  which  marks  the  boundary  of  physical  cans 
ation,  and  limits  the  researches  of  philosophy. 

"  Suppose,  for  example,  he  proposes,  as  an  object  of  investigation,  to  dis 
cover  the  state  of  Egypt  in  respect  to  government,  science,  and  art,  in  the 
time  of  Moses,  and  the  only  datum  given,  is  this  single  fact  —  that  fine 
linen  existed  in  Egypt  at  that  period.  In  what  manner  should  the  student 
be  directed  to  proceed  ?  He  must  begin  with  directing  his  attention  closely 
to  this  fact  as  an  effect,  and  then  consider  that  fine  hnen  —  that  is,  fine 
comparatively  to  other  fabrics  at  that  time  —  must  be  formed  of  fine  threads, 
which  can  only  be  made  of  fine  flax,  which  must  also  have  gone  through 
various  acts  of  preparation,  in  which  many  workmen  are  employed,  before 
the  threads  could  be  made  into  fine  linen. 

The  production  of  fine  flax  supposes  an  improved  state  of  agriculture,  and 
the  raising  of  many  other  kinds  of  grain,  —  wheat,  barley,  &c.,  —  to  support 
the  ci4tivators  of  flax,  and  the  artists  who  form  it  into  cloth.  In  no  country 
can  flax  be  the  sole  article  of  cultivation.  It  may  be,  then,  certainly  in 
ferred,  that,  in  the  time  of  Moses,  the  art  of  agriculture,  and  the  arts  con 
nected  with  it,  had  arrived  at  considerable  perfection. 

Returning  again  to  the  datum^  fine  linen  can  be  woven  only  in  a  fine 
loom,  which  must  be  accommodated  to  the  fine  texture  of  the  threads ;  and 
a  fine  loom  cannot  be  made  without  much  skill  in  the  arts  of  working  metaJ 
and  wood.  The  former  is  extracted;  with  gi-eat  labor,  from  ores,  dug  from 
the  bowels  of  the  earth,  and  must  go  through  many  difficult  and  laborious 


*  The  following  remarkable  instance  of  the  wonderful  poAvers  of  reasoning  possessed 
by  the  aWarigines  of  this  country,  is  presented  to  the  student,  to  enable  him  to  prose- 
cute similar  inquiries  to  a  satisfactory  result.  The  extract  is  from  "  Thatcher's  Usrcs 
of  the  Indians," 

"  Owing  partly  to  his  organization,  doubtless,  as  well  as  to  his  mode  of  Ivmg  from 
ehildhood  up,  the  senses  of  the  Indian  are  extremely  acute.  It  is  related,  in  modem 
times,  that  a  hunter,  belonging  to  one  of  the  western  tribes,  on  his  return  home  to 
his  hut  one  day,  discovered  that  his  venison,  which  had  been  hung  up  to  di-y,  had 
been  stolen.  After  taking  observations  on  th?  spot,  he  set  olT  in  pursuit  of  the  thief, 
whom  he  traced  througli  the  woods.  Having  gone  a  little  distance,  he  met  some  per- 
sons, of  whom  he  inquired,  whether  they  had  seen  a  little,  old  whiteman,  with  a  snort 
Qun,  accompanied  by  a  small  dog,  with  a,  short  tail.  They  replied  in  the  affirmative  ; 
and  upon  the  Indian  assuring  them  that  the  man  thus  described  had  stolen  his  veni- 
aon,  they  desired  to  be  informed  how  he  was  able  to  give  such  a  minute  description 
of  a  person  he  had  never  seen.  The  Indian  replied  thus :  The  thief  is  a  little  man,  I 
know  by  his  having  made  a  pile  of  stones  to  stand  upon,  in  order  to  reach  the  venison 
from  the  height  I  hung  it,  standing  on  the  ground.  That  he  is  an  old  man,  I  know  by 
hiS  short  steps,  which  I  have  traced  over  the  dead  leaves  in  the  woods  ;  that  he  is  a 
white  man,  I  know  by  his  turning  out  his  toes  when  he  walks,  which  an  Indian  never 
does  ;  his  gun,  I  know  to  be  short,  by  the  mark  the  muzzle  made  in  rubbing  the  bark 
of  the  tree  where  it  leaned ;  that  his  dog  is  small,  I  know  by  his  tracks,  and  that  he 
has  a  short  ta%i,  I  discovered  by  the  mark  it  made  in  the  dust  where  he  was  sitting,  at 
the  time  tliat  lis  master  was  taking  down  the  venison. ' ' 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


processes  before  it  becomes  malleable.  The  latter,  also,  must  iindergii 
much  preparation  before  it  can  go  into  the  hands  of  the  carpenter ;  and  tha 
loom  itself  is  a  complex  machine,  supposing  great  skill  and  progress  ot  the 
mechanical  arts  in  Egypt  at  the  time  of  Moses.      _      ,    .  ^. 

The  weaving  of  fine  linen,  too,  supposes  that  artists,  by  imitation  and  ex 
ample,  have  acquired  skill  and  dexterity  in  that  art ;  and  such  perfection 
cannot  be  expected  in  aiw  country,  till  a  division  of  labor— the  greatest 
instrument  of  improvement  in  all  the  arts  — be  in  some  degree  estabLshed 

The  skilful  weaver  must  be  wholly  occupied  m  making  fane  linen  ;  anil, 
therefore,  there  must  exist  many  other  artists  employed  in  providmg  tooci, 
clothes,  and  lodging,  —  the  necessaries  and  conveniences  ot  fate. 

Before  the  arts  could  have  made  such  progress  in  any  country,  men  must 
have  acquired  much  knowledge  of  facts  and  events,  by  observation  and  ex 
perience  ;  and  have  laid  the  foundation  of  general  knowledge,  by  speculat 
ing  on  means  of  impro\-ing  the  arts;  on  removing  the  obstacles  whicli 
retard  their  progi-ess,  and  in  opening  up  prospects  of  higher  degTces  ot  per 

Farther,  without  taking  up  time  to  follow  the  natural  and  connected  pro 
gress  of  the  arts  from  their  rude  to  their  more  perfect  state,  —  I  conclude 
this  process  of  investigation  with  observing,  that  there  can  bo  little  progress 
either  in  art  or  science  in  any  country,  without  the  existence  of  a  supreme, 
controUmg  power,  in  some  or  other  of  its  forms ;  by  which  men  are  com 
pelled  to  live  in  peace  and  tranquilUtv,  and  the  different  orders  of  society 
are  prevented  from  encroaching  on  each  other,  by  every  individual  bemg 
kept  in  his  proper  station.  No  arts  or  division  of  labor,  —  no  fine  Imen  or 
fine  workmanship  of  any  kind,  can  be  found  in  those  nations  _  which  live  m 
continual  warfare,  either  among  themselves,  or  with  their  neighbors,  thus, 
bv  such  a  contmued  chain  of  regular  and  progressive  deductions,  proceed- 
ino-  from  the  datii/m  with  which  it  began,  and  without  information  trop  any 
other  quarter,  we  have  sufficient  reason  to  beheve,  that,  at  the  time  of 
Moses,  Efr}T)t  was  a  gi-eat  and  populous  countiy  ;  that  the  arts  and  sciences 
had  made  considerable  progress,  and  that  government  and  laws  were  estab 
lished. 

Subjects  for  illiistroiion. 

What  may  be  learned  of  the  state  of  Greece,  and  of  the  character  of 
that  nation  at  the  time  when  Homer  wrote  the  Iliad,  without  drawing  in- 
formation from  any  other  source  than  from  the  Iliad  itself? 

What  was  the  state  of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  as  indicated  by  the 
poems  of  Ossian  1  Ai-e  there  any  marks  in  these  poems  of  a  later  origin 
than  that  generally  assigned  to  them  ? 

What  were  the  causes  which  produced  an  absolute  govermnent  atKome 
under  Augustus  1 

What  occasioned  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline  1 

Is  the  character  of  Hannibal,  in  Livy,  supported  by  the  narrative  he  has 
given  of  his  transactions  ?  ,  , 

Wliat  were  the  grounds  upon  which  the  Trojans  trusted  to  Simon  s 
account  of  the  wooden  horse  1 

What  are  the  difficulties  Avhich  occur  in  forming  a  standard  of  taste  1 

In  what  sense  is  poetry  called  an  imitative  art  ? 

What  are  the  proofs  by  whicli  Horne  Tooke  confirms  his  theory  of  the 
ongin  of  prepositions  and  conjunctions  in  the  English  language  1 

What  are  the  standards  by  which  we  judge  of  the  perfection  of  one  Ian 
guaccc  above  anotlier  'j 

What  are  the  causes  which  render  it  difficult  for  the  student  to  acquire 
habit  of  attention  1  •   j  o  ^ 

What  was  the  origin  of  the  present  political  parties  in  the  Umted  btat(is  1 
19* 


222  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


LXXII. 

ON  THE  TREATMENT  OF  A  SUBJECT 

The  first  and  leading  object  of  attention  in  every  compo- 
Bition  is,  to  determine  the  precise  point  of  inquiry,  —  the 
proposition  which  is  to  be  laid  down  and  supported,  or  the 
subject  which  is  to  be  explained  or  described.  Unless  the 
writer  has  steadily  before  him  some  fixed  purpose  which  he 
would  obtain,  or  some  point  which  he  would  reach,  he  will  be 
liable  to  go  astray,  —  to  lose  himself  and  his  readers.  It  is 
not  until  he  has  determined  on  the  definite  object  that  he  pro- 
poses to  accomplish,  that  he  can  know  what  views  to  present, 
and  how  to  dwell  on  the  different  topics  he  may  discuss. 

Let  us  suppose,  in  illustrating  the  views  now  to  be  presented,  that  the 
thoughts  of  the  writer  have  been  turned,  towards  the  manifestations  of 
wisdom,  goodness,  and  power,  in  the  works  of  creation  around  him,  and 
*  he  wishes  his  readers  to  be  mindful  of  these  things.  By  asking  himself 
the  three  following  questions  with  regard  to  the  train  of  thought  in  his 
mind,  his  ideas  will  immediately  assume  some  definite  fonn,  and  he  will 
be  enabled  to  present  them  in  a  lucid  and  systematic  manner. 

1st.  What  is  the  fact  1 

2d.  Why  is  it  so  ? 

3d.  What  consequences  result  from  it  ? 

And  with  regard  to  the  first  point  of  inquiry,  namely, '  What  is  the 
fact"?'  in  reply  it  may  be  said,  —  that,  in  the  material  world,  there  are 
numerous  indications  of  infinite  wisdom  and  benevolence,  and  of  Al- 
mighty power. 

2.  '  Why  is  it  so  ?  '  or.  How  is  the  existence  of  these  works  to  be  ac 
counted  for  ?  What  is  the  cause  ?  To  which  it  may  be  replied,  that  God 
created  them. 

3.  Again ;  '  What  consequences  result  from  it '  To  tliis  the  answer 
may  be  given,  that  —  Men  should  Kve  mindful  of  God. 

By  embodying  the  results  of  these  inquiries,  he  will  obtain  the  follow- 
ing conclusion  or  point  at  which  he  aimed,  namely,  —  Men  who  live  in  the 
midst  of  objects  which  show  forth  the  perfections  of  the  great  Creatoi.. 
should  live  mindful  of  him. 

It  is  not  necessary,  that  the  proposition  to  be  supported  should  always 
be  thus  formally  stated,  though  this  is  usually  done  in  writings  of  an  ar 
gumentative  nature.  Sometimes  it  is  elegantly  imphed,  or  left  to  be  in 
ierred  from  the  introductory  remarks. 

It  is  a  common  impression  with  young  writers,  that  the  wider  the  field 
of  inquiry  on  which  they  enter,  the  more  abundant  and  obvious  vvdll  be 
the  thoughts  which  will  offer  themselves  for  their  use.  Hence,  by  se- 
lecting some  general  subject,  they  hope  to  secure  copiousness  of  matter, 
and  thus  to  find  an  easier  task.  Experience,  however,  shows  that  the  • 
reverse  is  true,  —  that,  as  the  field  of  inquiry  is  narrowed,  questions  arise 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  223 

more  exciting  to  the  mind,  and  thoughts  are  suggested  of  greater  jalue 
and  interest  to  the  readers.  Suppose,  as  an  ^^^^stration  that  a  writer 
proposes  to  himself  to  write  an  essay  on  '  Literature.'  Amidst  the  nu 
Lerous  topics  which  might  be  treated  upon  under  this  term,  no 
could  be  preserved.  The  thoughts  advanced  would  be  common-place  and 
uninteresting.  But  let  some  distinct  inquiiy  be  proposed,  or  ^omejssev- 
tion  be  made  and  supported,  and  there  will  be  an  influx  of  interesting 
thoughts  presented  in  a  distinct  and  connected  manner. 

Instead,  therefore,  of  the  general  subject  ^Literatures  let  us  suppose  a 
particular  subject,  namely,  a  'Defence  of  literary  studies  m  men  of  busi- 
ne  'Ts  proposed:  It  will  be  seen  by  the  following  model  how  spontane- 
ously, as  it  were,  ideas  wiU  present  themselves,  and  with  what  ease  they 
can  be  arranged  with  the  strictest  regard  to  unity. 

Example. 

A  DEFENCE  OF  LITERARY  STUDIES  IN  MEN  OF  BUSINESS. 

Among  the  cautions  which  prudence  and  worldly  Avisdom  inculcate  on 
the  young,  or  at  least  among  thos(^ober  truths  ^hi^^J  experience  often  pre 
tends  to  have  acquired,  is  that  danger,  which  is  said  to  result  J^"^  the  PUi 
suit  of  letters  and  of  science,  in  men  destined  for  the  labors  f  .^usmf^^'/^r 
the  active  exertions  of  professional  life.    The  abstractK^n  of  learn  ng,  he 
speculations  of  science,  and  the  visionary,  excursions  of     ^y  are  fatal^ 
said,  to  the  steady  pursuit  of  common  objects^  to  the  l^^^^^ts  of  plodding  m 
dustry,  which  ordinary  business  demands.    The  fineness  of  nimd  which  s 
created  or  increased  by  the  study  of  letters  or  he  ^^^J^^-ation  of  the  art^^^ 
supposed  to  incapacitate  a  man  for  the  drudgery  by  ^^^^h  professional 
eminence  is  gained;  as  a  nicely  tempered  edge,  applied  to  a  coarse  and 
Tgged  material,  is  unable  to  perform  what  a  more  common  instrument 
would  have  successfully  achieved.    A  young  man,  destined  for  law  or  com 
merce,  is  advised  to  look  only  into  his  folio  of  precedents  or  Ins  method  of 
book-keeping  ;  and  duhiess  is  pointed  to  his  homage,  as  that  benevolent 
goddess,  Sndir  whose  protection  the  honors  of  station  and  the  blessings  of 
fpulencearetobe  obtained;  while  learning  and  genius  are  proscribed,  a. 
loading  their  votaries  to  barren  indigence  and  merited  neglect. 

In  doubting  the  truth  of  these  assertions,  I  think  I  shall  not  entertain  aay 
hurtful  degi-ee  of  skepticism,  because  the  general  current  of  opinion  seems, 
of  lateyelrs,tohave  set  too  strongly  in  the  contrary  direction,  and  one 
may  endeavor  to  prop  the  falling  cause  of  literature,  without  bemg  accused 
of  blameable  or  dangerous  partiality.  ■  _  ^       ^-p  ,vii^npca  nf 

In  the  examples  which  memory  and  experience  produce  of  idleness,  ol 
dissipation,  and  of  poverty,  brought  on  by  indulgence  ^terary  or  poetic^ 
enthusiasm,  the  evidence  must  necessarily  be  on  one  side  <>f  the  question 
only.  Of  the  few  whom  learning  or  genius  has  kd  astray,  the  ill  success 
or  the  ruin  is  marked  by  the  celebrity  of  the  sufferer.  Of  the  many  who 
have  been  as  dull  as  they  were  profligate,  and  as  ignorant  as  they  were 
poor,  the  fate  is  unknown,  from  the  insignificance  of  those  by  Avhom  it  was 
endured.  If  we  may  reason  a  priori  on  the  matter,  the  chance,  1  thinK, 
•should  be  on  the  side  of  literature.  In  young  minds  of  any  y;'yj^«^5' 
is  a  natural  aversion  to  the  drudgery  of  business,  which  is  dom  ove,  come, 
till  the  effervescence  of  youth  is  allayed  by  the  progress  of  time^^<i  ^^l^^t 
ortillthat  very  wra-mth  is  enlisted  on  the  side  of  their  P^ofe.sion,  by  the 
opening  prospects  of  ambition  or  emolument.  From  this  tP'amiy ,  as  j  oiK^ 
conceives  it,  of  attention  and  of  labor,  relief  is  commonly  nought  from  some 
favorite  Wcation  or  amusem<:nt,  for  which  a  young  man  either  Imcls  or 


224 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


steals  a  portion  of  his  time,  either  patiently  plods  through  his  task,  in  expec- 
tation of  its  approach,  or  anticipates  its  amval  by  deserting  his  work  before 
the  legal  period  for  amusement  is  arrived.  It  may  fairly  be  questioned, 
whether  the  most  innocent  of  these  amusements  is  either  so  honorable  or  so 
safe  as  the  avocation  of  learning  or  of  science.  Of  minds  uninformed  and 
gross,  whom  youthful  spirits  agitate,  but  fancy  and  feehng  have  no  power 
to  impel,  the  amusement  will  generally  be  boisterous  or  effeminate,  will 
either  dissipate  their  attention,  or  weaken  their  force.  The  employment  of 
a  young  man's  vacant  hours  is  often  too  little  attended  to  by  those  rigid  mas 
ters,  who  exact  the  most  scrupulous  observance  of  the  periods  destined  for 
business.  The  waste  of  time  is,  undoubtedly,  a  very  calculable  loss  ;  but  the 
waste  or  the  depravation  ofmind  is  a  loss  of  a  rp".ch  higher  denomination. 
The  votary  of  study,  or  the  enthusiast  of  fancy,  may  incur  the  first,  but 
the  latter  will  be  suffered  chiefly  by  him  whose  ignorance  or  want  of  imag 
ination  has  left  him  to  the  grossness  of  mere  sensual  enjoyments. 

In  this,  as  in  other  respects,  the  love  of  letters  is  friendly  to  sober  man 
ners  and  virtuous  conduct,  which,  in  every  profession,  is  the  road  to  success 
and  to  respect.  Without  adopting  the  common-place  reflections  against 
some  particular  departments,  it  must  be  allowed,  that,  in  mere  men  of  busi 
ness,  there  is  a  certain  professional  rule  of  right,  which  is  not  always  honor 
able,  and,  though  meant  to  be  selfish,  very  seldom  profits.  A  superior 
education  generally  corrects  this,  by  opting  the  mind  to  different  motives 
of  action,  to  the  feelings  of  delicacy,  the  sense  of  honor,  and  a  contempt  ol 
wealth,  when  earned  by  a  desertion  of  those  principles. 

To  the  improvement  of  our  faculties  as  well  as  of  our  principles,  the  love  of 
letters  appears  to  be  favorable.  Letters  requu-e  a  certain  sort  of  application, 
though  of  a  kind,  perhaps,  very  difierent  from  that  which  business  would 
recommend.  Granting  that  they  are  unprofitable  in  themselves,  as  that 
word  is  used  in  the  language  of  the  world,  yet,  as  developing  the  powers  of 
thought  and  reflection,  they  may  be  an  amusement  of  some  use,  as  those 
sports  of  children,  in  which  numbers  are  used  to  familiarize  them  to  the 
elements  of  arithmetic.  They  give  room  for  the  exercise  of  that  discern 
ment,  that  comparison  of  objects,  that  distinction  of  causes,  which  is  to  in 
crease  the  skill  of  the  physician,  to  guHie  ihs  sp 'iculations  of  the  merchant, 
and  to  prompt  the  arguments  of  the  lawyer ;  and,  though  some  professions 
employ  but  very  few  faculties  of  the  mind,  yet  there  is  scarcely  any  branch 
of  business  in  which  a  man  who  can  think  will  not  excel  him  who  can  only 
labor.  "We  shall  accordingly  find,  in  many  departments  ^here  learned  in 
formation  seemed  of  all  qualities  the  least  necessary,  that  those  who  pos 
sessed  it,  in  a  degi-ee  above  their  fellows,  have  found, 'from  that  very  circum- 
stance, the  road  to  eminence  and  wealth. 

But  I  must  often  repeat,  that  wealth  does  not  necessarily  create  happi- 
ness, nor  confer  dignity ;  a  trath  which  it  may  be  thought  declamation  t© 
insist  on,  but  which  the  present  time  seems  particularly  to  requh-e  being 
told. 

The  love  of  letters  is  connected  with  an  independence  and  delicacy  of 
mind,  which  is  a  great  preservative  against  that  servile  homage,  which  ab- 
ject men  pay  to  fortune  ;  and  there  is  a  certain  classical  pride,  which,  from 
the  society  of  Socrates  and  Plato,  Cicero  and  Atticus,  looks  down  with  an 
honest  disdain  on  the  wealth-blown  insects  of  modern  times,  neither  en- 
lightened by  knovdedge,  nor  ennobled  by  virtue. 

In  the  possession,  indeed,  of  what  he  has  attained,  in  that  rest  and  retire  « 
ment  from  his  labors,  with  the  hopes  of  which  his  fatigues  were  lightened 
and  his  cares  were  smoothed,  the  mere  man  of  business  frequently  under 
goes  suffering,  instead  of  finding  enjoyment.  To  be  busy  as  one  ought  ig 
an  easy  art:  but  to  know  how  to  be  idle  is  a  very  superior  accomplishment. 
This  difiiculty  is  much  increased  with  persons  to  whom  the  habit  of  em 
pioyment  has  made  some  active  exertion  necessary ;  who  cannot  sleep 
contented  in  the  toiT^or  of  indolence,  or  amuse  themselves  with  those  ligbtei 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


225 


*^illes  in  which  he,  who  inherited  idleness  as  he  did  fortune,  from  his  an 
cestors,  has  been  accustomed  to  find  amusement.  The  miseries  and  mis 
fortunes  of  the  '  retired  pleasures  '  of  men  of  business,  have  been  frequently 
matter  of  speculation  to  tlie  moralist,  and  of  ridicule  to  the  wit.  But  he 
who  has  mixed  general  knowledge  with  professional  skill,  and  literary 
amusements  with  professional  labor,  will  have  some  stock  wherewith  to 
support  him  in  idleness,  some  spring  for  his  mind  when  unbent  from  busi 
ness,  some  employment  for  those  hours,  which  retirement  and  solitude  has 
left  vacant  and  unoccupied.  Independence  in  the  use  of  one's  time  is  not 
tha  least  valuable  species  of  freedom.  This  liberty  the  man  of  letters  en- 
ioyb  ,  while  the  ignorant  and  the  illiterate  often  retire  from  the  thraldom  of 
business,  only  to  become  the  slaves  of  languor,  intemperance,  or  vice.  But 
tne  situation  in  which  the  advantages  of  that  endowment  of  mind,  which 
letters  bestow,  are  chiefly  conspicuous,  is  old  age,  when  a  man's  society  is 
necessarily  circumscribed,  and  his  powers  of  active  enjoyment  are  unavoid- 
ably diminished.  Unfit  for  the  bustle  of  aifairs,  and  the  amusements  of  his 
youth,  an  old  man,  if  he  has  no  source  of  mental  exertion  or  employment, 
often  settles  into  the  gloom  of  melancholy  and  peevishness,  or  petrifies  his 
feelings  by  habitual  intoxication.  From  an  old  man,  Avhose  gratifications 
were  solely  derived  from  those  sensual  appetites  which  time  has  blunted,  or 
from  those  trivial  amusements  which  youth  only  can  share,  age  has  cut' off 
almost  every  source  of  enjoyment.  But  to  him  who  has  stored  his  mind  with 
the  information,  and  can  still  employ  it  in  the  amusement  of  letters,  this 
blank  of  hfe  is  admirably  filled  up.  He  acts,  he  thinks,  and  he  feels  with 
that  literary  world,  whose  society  he  can  at  all  times  enjoy.  There  is,  per- 
haps, no  state  more  capable  of  comfort  to  ourselves,  or  more  attractive  of 
veneration  from  others,  than  that  w^ich  such  an  old  age  affords  ;  it  is  then 
the  twilight  of  the  passions,  when  they  are  mitigated,  but  not  extinguished, 
and  spread  their  gentle  influence  over  the  evenhig  of  our  day,  in  alliance 
with  reason  and  in  amity  -with  virtue. 


REMARKS  AND  ANALYSIS. 

In  examining  the  preceding  example  of  argumentative  writing,  the 
principal  object  of  attention  will  be,  the  plan  or  management  of  the  subject. 

The  introduction  consists  of  an  indirect  statement  of  the  question  to 
be  agitated.  We  are  told  how  those  have  thought  and  reasoned,  whose 
opinions  are  opposed  to  the  opinions  of  the  writer.  This  statement  is  dis- 
tinctly, and  fairly,  and  skilfully  made.  Our  literary  taste  is  gratified  by 
the  illustrations  and  ornaments  of  language  which  are  found.  Our  curi- 
osity is  roused,  and  Ave  are  ready  to  enter  with  interest  on  the  proposed 
investigation.  It  should  be  noticed,  that  there  is  no  formal  statement  of 
the  proposition  which  is  to  be  supported,  but  that  it  is  clearly  and  happily 
implied  in  the  introductory  paragraphs. 

After  the  introduction,  follows  the  refutation  of  an  objection.  That  this 
IS  the  proper  place  for  considering  the  objection  stated,  is  evident,  since, 
had  it  been  unnoticed,  or  its  refutation  deferred  to  the  close  of  the  essay,  the 
minds  of  readers  might  have  been  prevented  by  its  influence  from  giving 
due  weight  to  the  arguments  adduced.  There  are  two  m^es  of  refuting 
objections ;  one,  by  denying  the  premises  from  Avhich  a  conclusion  is 
drawn,  —  the  other,  by  showing  that  the  conclusion  does  not  truly  follow 
from  the  premises.  The  objection  here  considered  is,  that  facts  establish 
the  opposite  of  the  opinion  advanced  by  the  writer ;  of  course,  the  opinion 
can^  have  no  good  foundation.  To  refute  the  objection,  the  premise  ig 
denied.    Facts  are  otherwise,  says  the  writer,  and  a  satisfactory  reason  ig 


226 


AiDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


assigned  why  a  diiFerent  impression  as  to  the  bearing  of  facts  cn  the  case 
has  prevailed.  Having  assigned  this  reason,''the  writer  leaves  the  point 
at  issue,  as  to  facts  m  the  case,  to  be  determined  by  the  observation  and 
the  good  sense  of  his  readers.  Having  thus  introduced  his  subject  to  our 
attention,  stating  by  implication  the  proposition  to  be  examined,  and 
having  removed  an  objection  which  presented  itself  at  the  threshold,  the 
writer  now  enters  on  the  direct  examination  of  his  subject. 

The  following  proposition  is  supported :  Men  of  busixiess  may  advan- 
tageously devote  a  portion  of  their  time  to  literary  pursuits. 

1st  Argiimmt.  Young  men  of  business  should  engage  in  literary  studies, 
since  in  "them  is  found  a  pleasant  relaxation  and  security  against  hurtful 
indulgences. 

2d  Argument.  Young  men  of  business  should  engage  in  literary  studies, 
because  in  this  way  they  acquire  a  refinement  and  exaltation  of  mind, 
which  raises  them  above  grovelling  and  selfish  principles  and  conduct.^ 

3c?  Argument.  Young  men  of  business  should  engage  in  literary  studies, 
because  "the  cultivation  of  letters  is  favorable  to  the  improvement  of  the 
mind. 

4th  Argument.  A  man  of  business  should  engage  in  literary  pursuits, 
because  in  this  way  he  acquires  an  independence  of  feeling,  which  prepares 
him  to  enjoy  his  wealth.  Without  cultivation  of  mind  and  literary  taste, 
the  retirement  of  the  man  of  wealth  is  wearisome  and  disgusting  to  him. 

5th  Argument.  Men  of  business  should  cultivate  letters,  that  they  may 
find  in  tliem  grateful  employment  for  old  age. 

This  is  the  plan.  Upon  examination,  we  find  that  it  conforms  to  the 
general  dnections  given.  The  several  heads  are  distinct  from  each  other. 
They  have  a  similar  bearing  on  the  leading  proposition  to  be  supported, 
and  taken  together  they  give  a  unity  to  the  subject. 

The  kind  of  argument  here  used,  is  the  argument  from  cause  to  effect. 
Different  reasons  are  stated,  which  account  for  and  support  the  assertion 
that  is  made,  and  which  forms  the  leading  proposition.  Let  us  now  take 
a  nearer  view  of  these  different  arguments,  and  see  in  Avhat  way  they 
are  supported.  Under  the  first  argument,  the  reasoning  is  as  follows- 
1.  Young  men  in  business  will  have  relaxation  and  amusement.  2.  Unless 
those  of  a  salutary  kind  are  provided,  they  will  fall  into  such  as  are  hurt- 
ful. Hence  the  importance  of  their  behig  directed  to  literary  pursjiits, 
which  may  interest  and  benefit  them.  It  may  be  asked,  on  Avhat  authority 
do  these  assertions  of  the  writer  rest  ?  How  do  we  know  that  youn^ 
men  thus  idll  have  relaxation  and  amusement  1  and  that,  imless  those  of 
a  salutary  kind  are  provided,  they  will  fall  into  such  as  are  hurtful  1  I 
answer,  that  these  assertions  rest  on  the  comm^on  observation  and  expe- 
rience of  men.  Hence  the  writer  takes  it  for  granted,  that  those  whom 
he  addresses  will  yield  their  assent  to  his  premises,  and,  consequently,  if 
his  conclusion  is  correctly  drawn,  will  acknowledge  the  validity  of  his 
argument. 

"in  analyzing  the  second  argument„t.he  inquiry  arises,  Hov/  is  it  known, 
that  literary  sCTtdies  give  refinement  and  elevation  to  the  mind,  raising  it 
above  mean  and  groveUing  pursuits  1  Here  the  apj  eal  is  to  consciousness. 
Men  who  have  thus  cultivated  their  intellectual  powers,  are  conscious, 
when  they  look  in  upon  the  operations  of  their  own  minds,  that  these 
Bfllutary  influences  have  been  exerted  upon  them.  The  third  argument, 
which  asserts  that  the  love  of  letters  is  favorable  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
intellectual  powers,  rests  principally  upon  ©xperienre  and  observatioii. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


227 


There  is  atso  found  an  illustration,  which  is  of  an  analogical  kind.  It  is 
where  the  writer  refers  to  the  sports  of  children,  which  familiarize  them 
mth  the  elements  of  arithmetic.  This  argwnent  from  analogy  may  he 
regarded  as  an  appeal  to  the  common  sense  of  the  readers.  The  remain- 
ing argument  rests  in  like  manner  on  appeals  to  experience,  observation, 
common  sense,  and  consciousness,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  analyze  thep. 
The  student,  in  the  analysis  which  has  been  made,  has  had  an  opportunity 
of  seeing  some  of  the  grounds  on  which  assertions  and  reasonings  are 
founded. 


Lxxm. 

GEITERALIZATION  OF  A  SUBJECT. 

Generalization  is  the  act  of  extending  from  particulars  to 
generals,  or  tlie  act  of  making  general. 

In  the  treatgieiit  of  all  subjects  there  is  a  tendency  in 
young  writers  to  dwell  too  much  on  isolated  particulars,  with- 
out reference  to  their  general  application.  The  object  of  all 
investigations,  whether  literary,  physical,  or  intellectual,  and 
the  purport  of  all  inquiries,  should  be,  the  establishment  of 
general  principles;  and  every  thought,  which  may  tend  to 
their  elucidation,  and  every  idea  which  may  contribute  to 
their  discovery,  must  be  reckoned  among  the  most  valuable 
of  all  Uterary  labors.  Hence,  the  efforts  of  the  student  should 
be  directed  towards  the  attainment  of  so  valuable  an  end,  and 
in  the  traimng  of  his  mind,  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  there 
should  always  be  a  distinct  reference  to  this  consideration. 

In  the  study,  therefore,  which  the  writer  should  always 
employ  in  his  preparation  for  his  work,  it  should  be  his  aim 
to  discover  some  general  principle,  with  which  his  subject  is 
directly  or  remotely  connected,  and  endeavor  to  follow  out 
that  principle  m  all  its  consequences,  —  to  show  how  his 
subject  affects,  or  is  affected,  by  this  general  principle,  and 
how  that  principle  influences  the  interest  of  learning  and 
science,  or  contributes  to  the  well-being  of  society,  and  the 
moral,  physical,  and  intellectual  condition  of  the  world.  Let 
us  suppose,  for  instance,  that  the  teacher  has  assigned  to  a 
class  in  composition.  Truth,  as  the  subject  of  a  theme.  The 


'22S  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

young  writer,  who  is  too  much  in  haste  to  finish  his  task, 
would,  jjerhaps,  commence  his  exercise  with  some  hackneyed 
observations  on  its  importance,  and  dwell  with  considerable 
prolixity  on  its  influence  on  a  particular  individuah 

Individual  instances,  it  is  true,  may  have  their  influence  in 
estabhshmg  the  importance,  or  illustrating  the  effects  of  a 
a'eneral  principle ;  but  to  confine  an  exercise  upon  a  general 
subject  to  individual  instances,  is  to  present  but  narrow  views 
of  its  importance.  So  far  as  the  example  introduced  into  the 
exercise  of  the  student  may  serve  to  show  the  importance  of 
a  general  principle,  that  example  may  be  valuable,  but  it 
should  by  no  means  form  the  body  of  his  work.  It  may  be 
mtroduced  into  the  exercise,  as  an  illustration,  or  as  a  sub- 
sidiary portion  of  his  labor,  but  it  should  not  be  dwelt  upon 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  principle  which  it  is  designed  to  illus- 
trate. Thus,  in  the  subject  to  which  reference  has  already 
been  made,  namely,  "  Truth,"  the  well-known  story  of  Petrarch 
may  incidentally  be  mentioned,  to  show  the  dignity  which 
attends  the  strictest  observance  of  veracity ;  but,  an  exhibition 
of  the  efiects  on  society  in  general  of  the  presence  or  absence 
of  the  subject  itself,  would  be  a  more  useful  and,  of  course, 
II  more  valuable  mode  of  considering  the  subject,  than  any 
attempts  to  show  its  importance  in  individual  cases.  It  should 
be  the  constant  endeavor  of  the  teacher  to  lead  the  student  to 
the  consideration  of  causes  and  effects,  their  operations  and 
their  tendencies,  and,  by  the  method -of  reasoning  from  par- 
ticulars to  generals,  to  show  how  general  truths  are  inferred 
from  particular  instances,  and  general  principles  are  estab- 
lished by  the  consideration  of  the  effects  of  particular  causes. 

The  student  who  is  thus  led  to  perceive  the  general  bearings 
of  a  subject,  will  not  take  partial  views,  —  he  will  go  out  into 
the  world,  —  on  board  ship,  —  into  factories  and  other  large 
establishments,  and  view  the  operations  of  general  principles ; 
will  have  the  sphere  of  intellectual  vision  enlarged,  and  in- 
sensibly acquire  a  comprehensiveness  of  mental  perception, 
which  will  release  him  from  the  shackles  of  a  narrow  educa- 
tion, and  enable  him  to  take  in,  as  it  were  at  a  glance,  the 
grand  theatre  of  the  moral  world,  with  all  the  stupendous 
machinery  by  which  the  changes  in  its  scenery  are  effected. 

As  an  exercise  in  generalization,  the  student  may  fill  out 
some  one  or  m.ore  of  the  following  models  from  the  outline 
presented. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


229 


JExam/ple. 

i.  Time.   Definition  of;  its  divisions;  mode  of  marking  them;  mode 
ascertaining;  meridian;  tlie  sun;  parallel  between  time  and  ce, 
linite  and  intinite.  '  / 

2  The  Feudal  System.  Its  nature  and  origin,  including  a  cleai  4efi- 
nmonof  the  meaning  of  the  term ;  the  countries  where  it  existed;  the 
relations  which  it  caused  among  the  inhabitants  of  a  feudal  country ;  its 
eftects  upon  the  morals  and  the  happiness  of  the  respective  nations  where 
it  existed ;  the  \'irtues  and  vices  which  it  encouraged  and  engendered,  and 
a  consideration  of  the  causes  of  its  gradual  overthrow. 

3.  The  Grecian  Lawgivers,  Draco,  Solon,  and  Lycurgus.  The  differ 
ent  character  of  their  respective  laws ;  the  effect  which  they  produced  on 
the  people ;  then-  duration,  and  the  probable  cause  of  their  alteration  and 
abrogation ;  the  consequences  which  they  produced :  and  their  compara- 
tive effects  on  the  morals  and  happiifess  of  the  people. 

4.  The  Crusades.  What  were  they  1  their  object ;  the  manner  in  which 
they  originated :  the  superstitions  to  v/hich  they  gave  rise :  their  effect  on 
the  religion,  manners,  and  morals  of  the  age;  the  vices  'and  profligacy 
vv'hich  they  engendered ;  their  influence  on  the  moral  condition  of  the 
world,  and  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe ;  the  sacrifices  of  blood  and 
treasure  which  they  occasioned;  the  benefits  which  they  have  produced. 

5.  _  Chivalry.  TvTiat  was  it  ?  give  a  clear  definition  or  description  of  it ; 
how  it  arose  ;  the  manner  in  which  candidates  were  admitted  to  its  orders ; 
the  most  eminent  of  its  orders ;  the  effects  of  the  institution  on  the  m^orals 
and  prevalent  habits  of  the  age ;  its  particular  effect  on  the  female  character ; 
the  vu'tues  and  vices  which  it  would  naturally  engender  or  encourage ;  and 
the  good  or  bad  consequence  of  its  universal  prevalence  at  the  present  day. 

6.  The  ancient  Sects  of  Philosophy.  Describe  the  various  sects :  their 
doctnnes ;  the  manner  in  which  they  were  taught ;  the  character  of  the 
respective  founders  ;  their  influence :  the  remarkable  individuals  who  have 
embraced  the  principles  of  the  respective  sects  ;  and  the  effect  of  their 
writings  and  example  on  mankind,  &c. 

7.  The  Public  Games  of  Greece.  Their  origin ;  the  nature  of  these 
games,  or  in  what  they  consisted ;  the  places  where  they  were  celebrated : 
the  rewards  bestowed  upon  the  victors ;  the  estimation  in  which  these 
honors  were  held ;  the  effects  of  these  games  upon  the  victors,  and  upon 
the  nation  to  which  they  belonged,  by  encouraging  athletic  exercises  and 
spirit  of  emulation;  did  the  encouragement  of  physical  exertion  influence 
literary  or  intellectual  effort  for  the  better  or  the  worse  ?  the  probable  effects 
of  the  institution  of  similar  games  at  the  present  day. 

8.  The  Grecian  Oracles.  AA^iat  they  were  ;  where  situated  ;  by  Avhom, 
and  on  what  occasions,  were  they  consulted  ;  the  superstitions  which  they 
encouraged ;  then:  probable  nature  ;  their  effects  upon  the  relidous  char- 
acter of  the  people ;  their  duration ;  probable  cause  of  their  lalhng  into 
disuse;  the  wisdom  of  Providence  in  concealing  from  mankind  the 
knowledge  of  future  events  ;  fatalism. 

The  folloicinq  subjects  are  suggested  for  the  unaided  effbiix  of  the  students 
9.  The  Eeformation. 
l(  -  The  Invention  of  the  Art  of  Printina;. 

11.  The  Invention  of  the  Mariner's  Compass. 

12.  The  Telescope. 

20 


S30 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


LXXIV. 

POETEY  ASD  VERSmCATION. 

Pofitry  may  properly  be  defined  the  language  of  the  im- 
agmation.  Its  usual  form  is  in  verse,*  and  it  is  sometimes,  and 
mdeed  most  generally,  adorned  with  rh^-me.  But  true  poetry 
consists  in  the  idea,  not  in  the  harmonious  arrangement  of 
words  in  sentences,  nor  in  the  division  of  a  composition  into 
lines  containing  a  certain  succession  of  long  and  short  sylla- 
bles. 

Poetry  t  deals  largely  in  figurative  language,  especially  in  tropes,  met- 
aphors, personifications,  similes,  and  comparisons.  _  It  is  also  exceedingly 
partial  to  compound  epithets,  and  new  combinations  employed  for  the 
pm-poses  of  illustration  and  description. 

Versification  is  the  art  of  makmg  verses.  A  verse  is  a 
line  consisting  of  a  certain  succession  of  long  and  short  sylla- 
bles. A  hemistich  is  a  half  of  a  verse.  A  distich,  or  couplet, 
consists  of  two  verses. 

Metre!  is  the  measure  by  which  verses  are  composed. 


*  The  word  verse  is  frequently  incorrectly  used  for  stajiza.  A  verse 
coasists  of  a  sinsle  line  onlv.  A  stanza,  sometimes  called  a  stave,  consists 
cf  a  number  of  lines  regularly  adjusted  to  each  other.  The  word  verse  is 
•  derived  from  the  Latin  lan^uase,  and  signifies  a  tiiniing.  The  propriety 
of  the  name  wiE  be  seen  in  the  fact,  that  when  we  have  finished  a  Hue  we 
tTA0-n  to  the  other  side  of  the  page  to  commence  another. 

t  There  are  few  words  in  the  Ensrhsh  language,  the  true  signification  of 
which  is  more  frequentlv  mistakenlhan  the  word  Poetry.  It  is  generally 
thought  to  consist  in  the  hannonious  aiTangement  of  words  m  sentences, 
and  the  division  of  a  composition  into  lines  containiag  a  certain  succession 
of  long  or  short  syllables.  This  is  a  mistaking  of  the  dress  for  the  sub- 
stance°which  the  "dress  should  cover.  Tnie  poetry  consists  in  the  idea, 
that  it  mav  be  presented  even  in  the  form  of  prose.  It  addresses  itself  tc 
the  imagmation  and  to  the  feelings.  Thus  the  scriptui-al  adage,  "  Love 
vom-  enemies,"  although  in  prose,  becomes  highly  poetical,  when  presented 
with  th3  beautiful  illustration  of  ^Nlenon :  "  Like  the  sandal  ti-ee  which 
»hed5  a  perfume  on  the  axe  which  feUs  it,  we  should  love  our  enemies." 
This  distinction  between  the  idea  and  the  dress  which  it  assumes,  must  be 
carefuUy  noticed  bv  aU  who  aspire  to  poetical  fame.  _  / 

Perhaps  there  is'm  no  language  a  more  beautiful  exhibition  of  poetical 
beauties  in  the  fonu  of  prose,  than  in  the  beautiful  tale  called  "  The  Epi 
rurean,"  by  Thomas  Moore,  Esq. 

}  It  may  perhaps  be  useful,  although  not  properly  connected  vrith  the 
ubject  of  Enghsh  vcrsificat'on,  to  explain  what  is  meant  in  psalmody  bv 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


231 


This  measure  depends  on  tlie  number  of  the  syllables  and  the 
position  of  the  accents. 

The  divisions  made  in  a  verse  to  regulate  the  proper  suc- 
cession of  long  and  short  syllables  are  called  feet.  They  are 
called  feet,  because  the  voice,  as  it  were,  ste'ps  along  through 
the  verse  in  a  measured  pace.  The  divisions  of  a  verse  into 
feet  depend  entirely  upon  what  is  called  the  quantity  of  the 
syllables,  that  is,  whether  they  are  long  or  shorty  without 
reference  to  the  words. 

Sometimes  a  foot  consists  of  a  single  word,  but  it  also  sometimes  em- 
braces two  or  three  different  words,  and  sometimes  is  composed  of  parts 
of  different  words. 

There  are  eight  kinds  of  feet,  four  of  which  are  feet  of  two  syllables, 
and  four  are  feet  of  three  syllables. 

The  feet  consisting  of  two  syllables  are  the  Trochee,  the  Iambus,  the 
Spondee,  and  the  Pyrrhic. 

The  feet  of  three  syllables  are  the  Dactyle,  the  Amphibrach,  the  Ana- 
paest, and  the  Tribrach. 

The  Trochee  consists  of  one  long  and  one  short  syllable ;  as,  hateful. 

The  Iambus  consists  of  a  short  syllable  and  a  long  one  ;  as,  betray. 

The  Spondee  consists  of  two  long  syllables ;  as.  Pale  mom. 

The  Pyrrhic  consists  of  two  short  syllables ;  as,  on  thS  tall  tree. 

The  Dactyle  consists  of  one  long  syllable  and  two  short  ones  ;  as,  holi 
ness,  thiinderlng. 

The  Amphibrach  consists  of  a  short,  a  long,  and  a  short  syllable ;  as 
delightful,  rSmov^l,  coeval. 

The  Anapaest  consists  of  two  short  syllables  and  one  long  one ;  as, 
contravene. 

The  Tribrach  consists  of  three  short  syllables ;  as,  -ritual  in  the  word 
spiritual. 

Of  these  eight  different  kinds  of  feet,  the  Iambus,  the  Trochee,  the 
Anapeest,  and  the  Dactyle  are  most  frequently  used,  and  verses  may  be 
wholly  or  chiefly  composed  of  them.  The  others  may  be  termed  secon- 
ary  feet,  because  their  use  is  to  diversify  the  harmony  of  the  verse. 

English  verses  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  from  the 
feet  of  which  they  are  principally  composed;  namely,  the 
Iambic,  the  Trochaic,  and  the  Anapaestic.  To  these  some 
authors  add  the  Dactylic  as  a  fourth  division ;  but  an  atten- 
tive consideration  of  what  is  called  the  Dactylic  verse  v/ill 


Long^  Common,  Shorty  and  Particular  metre.  When  each  line  of  a  stanza 
has  eight  syllables,  it  is  called  Long  Metre.  When  the  first  and  third  lines 
have  eight  syllables,  and  he  second  and  fourth  have  six  syllables,  it  is 
called  Common  J\Ietr6.  W^hen  the  thu'd  line  has  eight,  and  the  rest  havQ 
six  syllables,  it  is  called  Skort  Metre.  Stanzas  \v  Particular  Metre  are  of 
Various  kinds,  and  ai-e  not  subject  to  definite  rules 


232 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


sliDW  that  it  is  nothing  more  than  the  Anapaestic,  with  the 
omission  of  the  first  two  unaccented  syllables. 

Every  species  of  English  verse  regularly  terminates  with  an  Accented 
syllable;  but  every  soecies  also  admits  at  the  end  an  additional  unac- 
cented syllable,  producing  (if  tlie  verse  be  in  rhyme)  a  double  rhyme, 
tliat  is,  a  rhyme  extending  to  two  syllables,  as  the  rhyme  must  always  com- 
mence on  the  accented  syllable.  This  additional  syllable  often  changes  the 
character  of  the  verse  from  grave  to  gay,  from  serious  to  jocose  ;  but  it 
does  not  affect  the  measure  or  rhyme  of  the  preceding  part  of  the  verse. 
A  verse  thus  lengthened  is  called  hypermetcr,  or  over  measure. 

Pure  Iambic  verses  contain  no  other  foot  than  the  Iambus, 
and  are  uniformly  accented  on  the  even  syllables. 
Trochaic  verses  are  accented  on  the  odd  syllables. 

There  are  seven  forms  of  Iambic  verse,  named  from  the  number  of  feet 
which  they  contain.  The  following  line  of  fourteen  syllables  contains  all 
the  seven  forms  of  pure  Iambic  verse. 

i.  How  blithe  I  whgn  first  [from  farll  came  I  to  w65|and  win  the  maid.* 
2.  When  firstifrom  far|l  came|to  woojand  mn  the  maid. 

3.  Erom  far|I  camelto  wooland  win  the  maid. 

4.  I  came  I  to  woo  |  and  win  the  maid. 
5.  To  woo  and  win  the  maid. 
6.  And  Avin  the  maid. 
7.  The  maid. 

The  additional  syllable  en  at  the  end  of  each  line,  to  convert  maid  into 
maiden,  will  furnish  seven  hypermeters,  and  the  line  will  thereby  be  made 
to  exemplify  fourteen  different  forms  of  the  Iambic  verse.t 

Trochaic  verse  is  in  reality  only  defective  Iambic ;  that  is  to  say,  lam 
bic  wanting  the  first  syllable.^ 

The  following  line  is  an  example  of  Trochaic  verse : 
Vital  {  spark  of  |  heavenly  |  flame.§ 


*  This  measure  is  sometimes  broken  into  two  lines,  thus : 
How  blithe  -when  first  I  came  from  far 
To  woo  and  win  the  maid, 
t  The  fifth  form  of  Iambic  verse,  consisting  of  five  Iambuses,  is  called  the 
Heroic  measure.    Tlie  follov/ing  lines  exemplify  it: 

How  loved,  I  huAv  val  |  ued  once  |  Tivails  |  thee  not, 
To  whom  related,  or  by  whom  begot,  &c. 
The  sixth  form  of  Iambic  verse  is  called  the  Alexandrine  measure  : 
A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song. 

Which  like  |  a  wound  ]  ed  snake  |  drags  its  |  slow  length  |  along. 
I  See  Carey's  English  Pi-osody,  London  edition  of  1816,  pp.  25  and  27. 
\  This  line,  scanned  as  Iambic,  has  a  broken  foot  at  the  beginnrng  • 

Yi  I  tal  spark  |  of  heaven  |  1}^  flame. 
Scanned  as  Trochaic,  it  has  the  broken  foot  at  the  end: 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION". 


2S3 


Anapaestic  verse  properly  consists  of  anapaests  alone ;  as, 

At  the  close  ]  of  thS  clay  [  when  the  ham  [  let  is  still. 

The  first  foot,  however,  in  all  the  different  forms  of  Anapastic  metre, 
may  be  a  foot  of  two  syllables,  provided  that  the  latter  syllable  of  th« 
foot  be  accented.  Such  are  the  Iambus  and  the  Spondee.  But  the 
Pyrrhic  and  the  Trochee,  which  have  not  the  second  syllable  accented, 
are  on  that  account  inadmissible.* 

Different  kinds  of  feet  frequently  occur  in  all  the  different 
kinds  of  verse.  But  it  is  not  always  that  they  can  be  exactly 
discriminated.  Concerning  the  Trochee,  the  Spondee,  and 
the  Pyrrhic,  there  can  be  little  doubt ;  but  with  respect  to  the 
Dactyle,  the  Anapaest,  and  the  Tribrach,  the  case  is  different ; 


came  to 

woo  and 

win  the 

came  to 

Avoo  and 

win  the 

came  to 

woo  and 

win  the 

Came  to 

woo  and 

win  the 

to) 

Woo  and 

win  the 

and)  Win  the 

Vital  I  spark  of  |  heavenly  |  flame. 
In  like  manner,  if  we  cut  off  the  first  syllable  from  any  form  of  the  lam 
bic,  we  shall  find  that  it  may  be  scanned  both  ways,  with  the  deficiency  of 
a  semi  foot  at  the  beginning  of  the  end,  according  as  we  scan  it  in  Iambuses 
or  Trochees. 

Thus,  the  line  given  as  an  exemplification  of  the  Iambic  metre,  on  the 
preceding  page,  if  deprived  in  each  form  of  its  first  syllable,  becomes  Tro- 
chaic : 

how)  Blithe  when  [  first  from  |  far  I   came  to   woo  and   win  the  maid. 

when)  Fkst  from  j  far  I    came  to    avoo  and    win  the  maid, 
from)  Far  I    came  to    woo  and    win  the  maid, 
I)  Came  to    woo  and    win  the  maid. 

maid, 
maid. 

And  thus  v/e  see,  that  what  v/e  call  Trochaics  regularly  terminate  in  an 
accented  syllable,  as  is  the  case  in  every  other  form  of  English  metre ; 
though,  like  every  other  form,  they  also  admit  an  additional  unaccented 
syllable  at  the  end,  producing  a  double  rhyme  ;  so  that  by  changing  maid 
for  maiden  in  each  of  the  preceding  lines,  (as  directed  under  Iambic  verse,) 
we  shall  have  twelve  forms  of  Trochaic  verse.  But  it  may  be  remarked, 
that  of  the  sis  regular  forms  of  Trochaic  verse,  and  the  six  hypermeter 
related  to  them,  the  first  three  in  each  class  are  very  seldom  used. 

*  The  following  stanza  is  given  by  some  authorities  as  an  instance  of 
Dactylic  verse : 

Holy  and  |  prire  are  the  |  pleasrires  of  ]  piety, 
Drawn  from  the  |  fountain  of  [  mercy  and  |  love ; 
Endless,  ex  |  hafistless,  ex  |  empt  from  sa  j  tiety, 
Eising  un  |  earthly  and  |  soaring  a  |  bove. 
An  attentive  consideration  of  these  lines  v/ill  show  that  they  are  legiti 
mate  Anapasstic  lines  with  the  omission  of  the  first  two  unaccented  sylla 
bles  in  each  line.    When  scanned  as  Dactylic  measure,  the  two  unaccented 
syllables  are  omitted  at  the  end  of  the  even  lines.    By  supplying  the  two 
unaccented  syllables  at  the  beginning  of  each  line,  they"^may  thus  be  shown 
to  be  Anapasstic : 

Oh  how  ho  I  ly  and  pure  |  are  the  pleas  |  ures  of  pi  |  ety 
As  they're  drS,V\'n  |  from  the  foun  |  tain  of  mer  |  cy  and  love,  &c. 
And  thus  it  appears,  that  when  scanned  as  Anapaestic  th-ey  want  the  ao 
cented  syllable  at  the  end  of  the  odd  lines. 
20* 


» 


234 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  C03IP0SITI0N. 


because,  by  a  poetic  license,  the  ■s^1iter  may  make  the  foot  iik 
question  a  Trochee,  a  SjDondee,  or  a  Pyrrhic.  * 

It  remains  to  be  observed^  that  if  from  any  verse  of  ordinary  construc- 
tion, we  remove  any  number  of  syllables,  and  substitute  an  equal  number 
of  others,  exactly  con-esponding  with  them  in  accent,  the  metre  will  stiU 
be  perfect,  although  the  sense  may  be  altered.  Thus, 

Pelides'  wrath.,  tS  Greece  the  dh-eful  spring 
Of  woes  unnumbered,  heavenly  goddess,  sing. 
Altered  thus : 

Thi'  Frenchman's  wis,  to  Spain  the  dh'eful  spring 
Of  feuds  and  carnage,  heavenly  goddess,  sing. 

Hark !  the  numbers,  soft  and  clear. 
Gently  steal  upon  the  ear. 

Altered  thus : 

Hark !  the  thunders,  loud  and  clear, 
Rudely  hurst  upon  the  ear. 

The  Caesura  (which  word  means  a  division)  is  the  separa 
tion,  or  pause,  which  is  made  in  the  body  of  a  verse  in  utter- 
ance ;  dividing  the  line,  as  it  were,  into  two  members. 

In  different  species  of  verse,  and  in  different  verses  of  the  same  species, 
this  pause  occm'S  in  different  paits  of  the  verse :  and  serves  to  give  variety 
to  the  line.  Its  position  is,  for  the  most  part,  easily  ascertained,  by  the 
grammatical  construction  and  the  punctuation,  which  naturally  indicate 
the  place  where  the  sense  either  requires  or  admits  a  pause. 

The  most  advantageous  position  for  the  Cffistn-a  is  generally  after  the 
fourth,  fifth,  or  sixth  syllable ;  although  it  occasionally  takes  place  after 
the  tMrd  or  the  seventh. 

In  the  following  lines  the  figm-es  denote  the  number  of  the  syllabla 
where  the  ccesura  belongs. 

The  Sa-i-iom-  comes  4  |j  by  ancient  bards  foretold. 
From  storms  a  shelter  5  ;|  and  from  heat  a  shade. 
Exalt  thy  towering  head  6  i;  and  lift  thy  eyes. 
Exploring  3  j!  tiU  they  find  their  native'  deep. 
Within  that  mystic  circle  7  1|  safely  seek. 

Sometimes,  though  rarely,  the  csssura  occtirs  after  the  second  or  the 
eighth  syllable :  as, 

Happy  2  jj  without  the  privilege  of  will. 
In  different  individuals  8  ;|  we  find. 

Sometimes  the  line  requkes  or  admits  two  pauses  or  csestiras.  Thia 
double  patise  is  by  some  wiiters  called  the  cresura  and  the  demi-csesura  • 
m, 

Csesar,  2  ji  the  world's  great  master,  7  "  and  his  own. 
And  goodness  3  li  like  the  sun  6  |j  enlightens  all. 


*  See  Carey's  Bnglisa  Prosody,  p.  49. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


235 


Tlicre  are  few  more  melodious  instances  of  these  jpauses  to  oe  found, 
than  in  the  following  lines  from  one  of  the  most  pohshed  poets  %vhich  the 
English  language  has  produced. 

Warms  1|  in  the  sun,  4  ||  refreshes  6  ||  in  the  hreeze, 
Glows  II  in  the  stars,  ||  and  blossoms  ||  in  the  trees ; 
Lives  II  through  all  life,  ||  extends  ||  through  all  extent, 
Spreads  ||  un.livided,  operates  |1  unspent. 

It  remains  to  be  observed,  that  in  poetry,  as  well  as  in 
prose,  but  more  especially  in  poetry,  it  is  esteemed  a  grea^t 
beauty  when  the  sound  of  the  verse,  or  of  the  feet  of  which  it 
is  composed,  corresponds  with  the  signification.  Instances  of 
this  kind  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  Onomatopoeia.  A 
simUar  beauty  appears  in  the  following  lines : 

"  On  the  ear 
Drops  the  light  drip  of  the  suspended  oar." 

"  The  string  let  fly 
Twanged  short  and  sharp,  like  the  shrill  swallow's  cry." 

SPECIMENS  OE  DIEEERENT  KINDS  OE  ENGLISH  VERSE. 

Iambic  of  tJie  shortest  form,  consisting  of  an  Iambus  with  an  additional 
syllable ;  thus  coinciding  with  the  amphidrach. 

Disdaining.  Consenting. 
Complaining.  Repenting. 

This  form  may  be  found  in  stanzas  of  other  measure,  but  is  not  used 
alone. 

Second  form  of  the  Iambic,  consisting  of  two  Iambuses. 

With  ravished  ears 
The  monarch  hears, 
Assumes  the  god, 
Affects  to  nod. 

Hypmnete)'  of  the  same  hind. 

Upon  a  mountain. 
Beneath  a  fountain. 

Three  Iambuses,  with  hype}-meter  of  the  same  kind. 

'T  was  when  the  seas  were  roaring 
Vfith  hollow  blasts  of  wind, 
A  damsel  lay  deploring, 
All  on  a  rock  reclined. 

Four  Iambuses. 

And  may  at  last  my  weary  age 
Eind  out  the  peaceful  hermitage. 


236 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Five  lamhises,  or  the  Heroic  measure. 

Be  wise  to-day,  't  is  madness  to  defer- 
How  loved,  how  valued  once,  avails  thee  not, 
To  whom  related,  or  by  whom  begot : 
A  heap  of  dust  alone  remains  of  thee, 
'T  is  all  thou  art,  and  all  the  proud  shall  be. 

Six  Iambuses,  or  the  Alexandrine  vieasure- 

Eor  thou  art  but  of  dust ;  be  humble  and  be  wise. 

( The  latter  of  the  two  following  is  an  Alexandrine.) 

A  needless  Alexandiine  ends  the  song, 

That,  like  a  v,'ounded  snake,  drags  its  slow  length  along. 

Seveyi  Iambuses. 

The  melancholy  days  have  come,  the  saddest  of  the  year, 
Of  wailing  winds,  and  naked  woods,  and  meadows  brown  and  sere. 
The  robin  and  the  wren  have  flown,  and  from  the  shrab  the  jay, 
And  from  the  wood  top  caws  *  the  crow,  through  all  the  gloomy  day. 

This  measure  is  sometimes  broken  into  two  lines,  thus  : 

When  all  thy  mercies,  O  my  God ! 
My  rising  soul  surveys, 
Transported  with  the  view,  I 'm  lost 
In  wonder,  love,  and  praise. 

Trochaic  verse  of  one  Trochee  and  a  long  syllable. 

Tumult  cease 
Sink  to  peace. 
See  him  stride, 
Yalleys  wide, 
Over  woods. 
Over  floods. 

Tivo  Trochees. 

Eich  the  treasure, 
Sweet  the  pleasure. 
Soft  denials 
Are  but  trials. 


*  This  alteration  in  a  line  of  one  of  the  sweetest  pieces  of  poetry  evef 
written  in  any  lansruage,  was  suggested  by  the  lame:tited  ^Ir.  Bailey,  of  the 
High  School" for  iairls,  in  this  city.  In'  compiling  "The  Young  Ladies' 
Class  Book,"  he  expressed  a  wish  to  the  author  to  take  this  liberty,  but  he 
deemed  it  unwarrantable.  The  reading  is  adopted  here  as  a  beautiful  ex- 
emplification of  what  is  stated  under  Onomatcpceia ;  and,  indeed,  v/hen  we 
consider  how  easilv  the  printer  might  mistake  in  manuscript  a  20  for 
a  double  I,  it  would'  not  be  surprising  if  it  should  hereafter  appear  that  our 
gifted  countryman  originally  wrote  it  caws,  and  not  calls,  as  it  is  generaUj 
written. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  237 

Two  Trochcesy  with  an  additional  long  syllable. 

In  the  days  of  old 
Pables  plainly  told. 

ITiree  Trochees. 

Go  where  glory  waits  thee. 
rhree  Trochees^  idth  an  additional  syllable. 

Restless  mortals  toil  for  nought ; 
Bliss  in  vain  from  earth  is  sought. 

Fow  TrocJiees. 

Round  us  wars  the  tempest  louder. 
With  an  additional  syllable. 

Idle  after  dinner  in  his  chair. 

Five  Trochees. 

All  that  walk  on  foot  or  ride  in  chariots. 
Six  Trochees. 

On  a  mountain,  stretched  beneath  a  hoary  willow. 
Anapcestic  verse  consisting  of  one  Anapcest. 

But  in  vain 
They  complain.  * 

Tm  Anapaests. 

But  his  courage  'gan  fail, 
Eor  no  arts  could  avail. 

With  an  additional  syllable. 

But  his  courage  'gan  fail  him. 
For  no  arts  could  avail  him. 

Three  Anapaests,. 

I  am  monarch  of  all  I  survey, 
My  right  there  is  none  to  dispute ; 
From  the  centre  all  round  to  the  sea, 
I  am  lord  of  the  fowl  and  the  brute. 

Fbur  Anapcests. 

At  the  close  of  the  day  wnen  the  hamlet  is  still. 
Hyper  meter  of  four  Anapcests. 

On  the  warm  cheek  of  youth,  smiles  and  roses  are  blending. 

VERSES   Iir  "WHICH   THE   SECONDARY  FEET   ARB  ADMITTED   TO  GIV5 
VARIETY  TO  THE  MELODY. 

The  student  will  observe^  by  the  marks  on  the  vowels,  what  the  secondary  fed 
tzre,  which  are  introduced  in  the  follotving  lines  ;  the  first  foot  is  a  spondee. 
There  soon  the  sufferer  sinks  to  rest. 
There  too  was  he,  who  nobly  stemmed  the  tide. 
That  breast  the  seat  of  sentimSnt  refined. 
Hail,  long  lost  Peace  !  hail,  ddve-eyed  maid  divine. 


*  This  measure  is  ambiguous,  for  by  accenting  the  first  and  third  sylla 
bles  we  may  make  it  Trosliaie. 


238  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

A  Pt/rrhic  occurs  in  the  following. 

If  auo-ht  be  welcome  to  our  sylvan  shed, 
Be  it'the  the  trav'll6r  who  has  lost  his  way. 
I  sought  the  beauties  of  the  pamted  vale, 
The  flowers  I  often  watered  with  my  tears. 
And  loaded  with  my  sighs  the  passing  gale 

Spondees  and  Pyrrhics  with  Iambuses. 

Go  pious  offspring  and  restrain  those  tears ; 
I  f  V  to  regions  of  eternal  bliss. 
Heaven  in  vour  favor  hears  my  dying  prayers ; 
Take  my  la'st  blessing  in  this  clay  cold  kiss. 

A  Dactyl  with  Iambuses. 

]\Iurmili-ing,  and  with  him  fled  the  shades  of  night 

Amphihrachs  mixed  with  lainbuses. 

O'er  many  a  frozen,  many  a  fi^iy  Sip. 

A  Spondee  and  a  Tnbrach,  with  Iambuses. 

Innumerable  before  th'  Almighty  thi-one. 

It  will  thus  be  perceived,  that  by  the  mixture  of  different  kinds  of  feet, 
aU  that  variety  is  produced,  which  renders  poetiy  agreeable  to  the  ear. 
To  constitute  verse,  it  is  not  sufficient  that  a  number  of  janing  syUables 
should  be  ranched  in  uncouth  lines,  with  rhyme  at  the  end.  Order,  regu- 
laritv,  svmmetry,  and  hannonv  are  requisite,  while  the  taste  and  judgment 
of  the  poet  are  'displayed  by  the  proper  mixture  of  accented  and  unac 
cented  syUables  to  foiTn  an'harmonious  line.^? 

The  student,  having  now  been  made  acquainted  with  the 
different  kinds  of  verse,  may  be  required  to  compose  verses 
himself  in  all  the  different  kinds  of  measure.  As  a  first  exer- 
cise in  versification,  he  may  be  permitted  to  write  words  in 
verses  without  regard  to  their  signijication,  makmg  what  may 
be  called  no7isense  verses,  as  in  the  following 

Example, 

Five  foot  Iambus  or  Heroic  Verse. 
Thus  man  attempts  some  nobler  end  to  scan. 
Besti-ides  the  flood  in  hoiTor  at  the  plan. 


*  The  harmony  of  a  verse  may  sometimes  be  utterly  destroyed  by 
misplacing  of  a  single  monosyllable  ;  thus, 

"  Thrice  is  he  anned  that  hath  his  quaiTel  just, 
And  he  but  naked,  though  locked  up  in  steel, 
TvTiose  conscience  is  with  injustice  con-opted." 
In  this  extract,  the  measure  of  the  third  line  is  utterly  destroyed  by 
misplacing  of  the  word  is.   It  should  be. 

Whose  consdence  with  iniustice  vh  corru^>tew." 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMrOSITION 


239 


Troclmic. 
Boiling  in  the  troubled  sea. 
Full  of  mirthful  hope  to  be. 

Anapaestic. 

From  the  brow  of  the  hill  see  the  hei-mit  appear, 
And  with  joy  in  his  face  mark  the  Avaters  so  clear,  &c. 

JExercises. 

Having  previously  attempted  to  form  verses  in  all  the  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  measure  that  have  been  described,  with  words 
without  reference  to  sense,  the  student  may  arrange  the  fol- 
lowing lines  in  regular  order.  The  Hues  themselves  contain 
all  the  words  necessary  both  for  the  harmonious  construction 
and  the  expression  of  the  sense.  The  order  of  them  is,  how- 
ever, disturbed,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following 

^  Example, 

Adieu  to  the  woodlands,  where,  gay  and  sportive, 
The  cattle  play  so  frolicsome,  light  bounding. 
Adieu  to  the  woodlands  where  I  have  roved  oft, 
And,  with  the  friend  that  I  loved,  conversed  so  sweetly 

Same  iwrds  properly  arranged. 
Adieu  to  the  woodlands,  where,  sportive  and  gay. 
The  cattle  light  bounding  so  frolicsome  play. 
Adieu  to  the  woodlands  where  oft  I  have  roved, 
And  sweetly  conversed  with  the  friend  I  have  loved. 

JExercises. 

Verses  to  he  arranged  hj  the  Student  in  Anapaestic  *  lines  of  four  Jeet. 

Content  and  joy  are  now  fled  from  our  dwellings, 
And,  instead,  disease  and  want  are  our  inmates. 


*  Dr.  Cai-ey,  m  h:s  English  Prosody,  savs,  "If,  like  Tertfeus  of  old,  I  had 
ptp^^^tL  r  /l^^'v""?^  ^^'^  °^  I  ^^'0^^^  preference  tc 
Z^^.f  ^^-T  °J  ^",7^^'^  Anap^Bstic,  of  four  feet  in 

,3p  w  k  ''^''^^  yi^^^""'  '^'^^  anapaests,  unincumbered  with  an 
undue  weight^of  heavy  syllables,  and  judiciously  aided  by  appropriate  mu- 
sic could  hardly  fail  to  martialize  even  shivering  cowards,  and  warm  them 
into  heroes ;  the  b^sk  animating  march  of  the  verse  having  the  same  effect 
on  the  soul,  as  the  body  experiences  from  the  quick,  lively  step,  which,  b> 
accelerating  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  at  once  warms  and  dilates  the 
heart,  and  renders  the  warrior  more  prompt  to  deeds  of  prowess."  If  any 
donhTJl^i  S^^^'^'I^k''^,^^  ^^^-^y'^  opinion,  as  thus  expressed,  his 
Sd^^^^;W^^^*^^P^--l<^^  ^-P^^ll'^  beautiMViece,enti 


240 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSllION. 


Kovv  chivalry  is  dead,  and  Gallia  .rained, 
And  the  gloiy  of  Europe  is  fled  for  ever. 

'T  is  wonaan,  whose  charms  impart  eveiy  rapture, 
And  to  the  pulse  of  the  heart  add  a  soft  spring. 
Her  sv^ay  is  so  supreme,  the  miser  himself 
Resigns  her  his  key,  and.  to  love  grows  a  convert. 
Sorrow  lifts  up  his  head  at  the  sound  of  her  voica 
And,  from  his  shed,  Poverty  well  pleased  listens. 
Even  age,  hobbling  along,  in  an  ecstasy 
Beats  time  to  the  tune  of  her  song  with  her  crutch. 

How  sweet  is  the  thought  of  to-morrow  to  the  hearty 
When  Hope's  fairy  pictures  display  bright  colors, 
How  sweet  when  we  can  borrow  from  futurity 
A  balm  for  the  griefs  that  to-day  afflict  us. 

To  he  made  into  Iambic  verses  luith  four  feet. 

And  while  I  feel  thy  gracious  gifts 
My  song  shall  reveal  all  thy  praise. 

The  search  shall  teach  thee  to  prize  life, 
And  make  thee  good,  wise,  and  grateful. 

"With  ease  you  wear  a  thousand  shapes, 
And  still  you  please  in  every  shape. 

Neither  wealth  I  pursue,  nor  power, 
Nor  hold  in  view  forbidden  joys. 

The  pradent  nymph,  whose  cheeks  disclose 
The  blushing  rose  and  the  lily. 
Will  screen  her  charms  from  public  view, 
And  rarely  be  seen  in  the  crowd. 

Iambic  verses  of  five  feet^  or  the  Heroic  *  measure. 
As  Orpheus  tunes  his  song  in  Thracian  wilds, 
The  raptured  beasts  throng  around  him  in  crcwds. 

Seek  not  thou  to  find,  with  vain  endeavor, 
Of  Almighty  mind  the  secret  counsels ; 
The  great  decree  lies  involved  in  darkness ; 
Nor  can  the  depths  of  fate  by  thee  be  pierced. 

O  could  some  poet  rise,  bold  in  wisdom, 

And  unfold  half  thy  beauties  to  the  world, 

Roving  on  fancy's  wing,  impart  thy  fire, 

And  feel  thy  genius  beaming  on  his  heart,  — 

I 'd  wish  humbly,  though  the  vvdsh  would  be  vain, 

That  on  me  some  smacll  portion  might  alight. 


*  This  is  the  principal  metre  of  our  language,  and  it  is  happily  adapted 
t©  every  kind  of  subject,  from  the  most  exalted  to  the  most  humble  and  fa- 
miliar, and  it  ma^r  be  used  with  or  without  rhyme. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


241 


Trochaic  verses. 
Where  spreads  the  rising  forest, 
For  the  lordly  dome  shelter, 
To  their  airy  beds  high  built, 
See  returning  home  the  rooks. 

•  Now  battle  glows  with  fury 
In  torrents  flows  hostile  blood. 

Here  you  '11  find  mental  pleasures, 
Pleasures  that  the  mind  adorn. 
The  joys  of  sense  are  transient, 
They  dispense  ho  solid  bliss. 

The  shepherd  dines  by  the  brook 
Heat  the  tierce  meridian  from 
By  the  branching  pines  sheltered 
O'er  his  grassy  seat  pendent. 

But  from  stream,  dell,  or  mountain 
Springs  not  a  fluttering  zephyr, 
Lest  lie  noontide  beam,  fearful 
His  silken,  his  soft  wings  scorch. 

EHYME. 

Rhyme  is  a  similarity,  or  agreement,  in  the  sound  of  final 
syllables. 

Verse  without  rhyme  is  called  Uanh  verse.* 

It  is  a  general  rule  in  poetry,  with  regard  to  rhymes,  that 
they  should  begin  on  the  accented  syllable. 

In  the  forming  of  verses  with  rhyme,  it  is  a  good  rule  to 
let  the  weaker  line  stand  first.f 


*  Rh;>Tne  is  by  no  means  to  be  considered  as  an  essential  constituent  in 
Lnghsh  poetry.  Much  poetry  has  been  written,  and  that,  too,  of  the 
choicest  description,  in  which  rhyme  has  no  part.  The  poetry  of  Milton 
bhakspeare,  Thomson,  Young,  and  a  host  of  others,  whose  writings  have 
contributed  so  much  to  the  literature  of  the-  language,  seldom  admits  this 

meretricious  ^'  ornament, 'as  it  has  been  caUed.  But  it  has  been  said,  that, 
although,  m  the  five  feet  Iambic  measure,  the  measured  dignity  of  the  v«rse 
supplies  the  place  of  rhyme,  in  the  other  forms  of  English  versification  i  t  is 
absolutely  essential.  Whoever  wUl  be  at  the  pains  to  convince  himself  that 
this   ■  ■  -       -  ^ 


agamst  the  injudicious  use  of  expletives.  An  expletive  is  a  word  introduced 
merely  to  fill  out  the  line,  while  it  not  onlv  contributes  nothing  to  the  sens* 
Dut  absolutely  weakens  it.  Pope,  in  his  "Essay  on  Criticism,  exemplifies, 
while  he  condemns  this  fault,  i  ♦ 

"  WhUe  expletives  their  feeble  aid  do  join, 
And  ten  low  words  oft  creep  in  one  dull  line." 
21 


242  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

Rhymes  may  occur  in  consecutive,  or  alternate  lines,  or  in 
♦iny  other  regular  order,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  writer. 

Ehymes  are  of  two  kinds,  perfect  rhymes  and  allowable 
rhymes.  The  difference  between  the  two  kmds  will  readily 
be  seen  by  the  following  Vocabulary,  taken  from  Walker's 
"  Khyming  Dictionary."  * 


*  On  the  same  principle  of  association,  on  Vnich  some  of  the  earlier  les- 
sons in  this  volume  are  founded,  it  is  thought  that  this  vocabulary  will  aid 
the  student,  not  only  in  finding  a  rhyme,  but  hkewise  in  suggesting  ideas. 
Dr.  Carey,  in  the  Preface  to  his  "  English  Prosody,"  says :  "It  is  not  with 
the  view  of  making  poets  and  poetesses  that  I  send  forth  this  pubhcation. 
That  must  be  the  work  of  nature  alone :  it  is  not  in  my  power  to  create 
them ;  and  if  it  were,  I  might  be  accused  of  doing  more  hai-m  than  good,  in 
tempting  many  of  my  young  readers  to  quit  a  gainful  calling  for  the  un 
gainful  trade.  My  aims  are  more  humble  ;  —  1.  To  teach  the  learner  to  read 
poetry  with  propriety  and  grace  ;  2.  To  improve  and  polish  his  style  for 
prose  composition."  And,  further  on,  he  adds;  "Indeed,  every  person, 
whether  poet  or  not,  who  has  received  any  tolerable  education,  and  pretends 
to  write  decent  prose,  ought  likewise  to  be  qualified  for  the  occasional  pro- 
eduction  of  a  few  verses,  smooth,  at  least,  and  metrically  correct,  whatever 
may  be  their  merit  or  demerit  in  other  respects.  That  the  practice  of  versi 
fication  materially  improves  the  style  for  prose  composition,  there  cannot  be 
a  doubt.  The  ear  which  is  acutely  sensible  to  the  harmonies  of  verse,  will 
naturally  revolt  against  inharmonious  harshness  in  prose ;  and  the  pains 
bestowed  in  searching  for  a  variety  of  words  of  difi'erent  lengths,  quantities, 
and  terminations^  to  suit  the  exigencies  of  the  metre,  — 

'  the  shifts  and  turns, 
Th'  expedients  and  inventions  multiforai, 
To  which  the  mind  resorts  in  chase  of  terms, 
T'  arrest  the  fleeting  images,  that  fill 
The  mirror  of  the  mind.' 

will  copiously  enlarge  the  writer's  stock  of  expressions,  —  will  enable  him 
to  array  his  thoughts  in  a  more  elegant  and  attractive  garb,  and  to  vary 
that  garb  at  pleasure,  by  the  ready  aid  of  a  diversified  phraseology.  It  will, 
at  the  same  time,  produce  a  more  "'important  and  beautiful  effect,  —  it  will 
enrich  the  intellectual  store  of  thought;  for,  while  in  search  for  an  epithet^ 
for  an  example,  or  a  periphrase,  he  is  obliged  to  view  the  subject  in  all  its 
possible  bearings  and  relations,  that  he  may  choose  such  particular  word  or 
phrase,  as  shall  exhibit  it  in  the  most  advantageous  light.  And  what  study 
more  effectual  to  call  into  action  the  powers  of  the  mind,  to  exercise  the 
^'udgnaent,  to  whet  the  sagacity,  and  give  birth  to  a  variety  of  ideas  ^  which 
might  otherwise  have  lain  for  ever  dormant  ?  'For  these  weighty  consid 
erations,  the  practice  of  verse-making  has  been  recommended  by  Locke, 
Chesterfield,  Franklin,  &c.,  &c." 

The  teacher  will  find  the  following  exercise,  called  by  the  French  "  Bouts 
Rijues''  interesting  to  the  yoitng  student,  and,  like  all  other  inducements 
to  thought,  auxiliary  to  the  subject  of  composition. 

"  One  of  a  party  writes  down  the  rhyming  words  for  a  short  poem  ;  which 
another  undertakes  to  complete,  by  filling  up  the  several  verses,  on  a  sub- 
ject either  chosen  at  pleasure,  or  prescribed,  as  the  case  may  be.  The 
following  stanza,  in  which  the  v/ords  in  italic  are  the  rhyming  words  pre- 
viousl:/  assigned,  will  be  sulFxciently  explanatorx-  of  the  practice  : 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


243 


LXXV. 


"VOCABULARY  OF  RHYMES. 

Directions  for  finding  Rhymes. 

1.  In  looking  for  a  word  in  the  following  vocabulary,  consider  the  five 
rowels,  A,  E,  /,  0,  U,  and  begin  at  the  vowel  that  precedes  the  last  con- 
sonant  of  the  word ;  for  example,  to  find  persuade,  and  the  words  that 
rhyme  to  it,  D  is  the  last  consonant,  A  the  vowel  that  precedes  it;  look 
for  ADE,  and  you  will  find  made,  fade,  invade,  and  all  the  other  words  of 
that  rhyme. 


*To  Hope. 

Down,  down,  vain  hope,  to  me  no  .....  more 

Can  spring  return,  with  blossoms   crowned. 

Nor  Summer  ripen  Autumn's   store 

Which  now  lies  withering  on  the   ground. 

Fade,  fade,  vain  Hope  !  all  else  has  faded; 

Why  should  I  dream  and  cherish   thee  ? 

Smce  dark  Despair,  that  sun  has  .....  shaded, 

Which  once  gave  light  and  joy  to   me. 

Go,  flatterer,  go  !  thy  hour  is   past; 

Thy  promised  pleasures  all  are   vain  : 

I  know  they  are  not  meant  to   last 

And  ne'er  will  trust  to  thee  .....  aga;in.'> 

Another  sort  of  poetical  amusement  has  the  name  of  Echo  Verses.  In 
these  the  repetition  of  the  last  word  or  syllable  of  a  verse  gives  an  answer 
to  a  question,  or  explains  some  subject,  which  that  verse  contains.  The 
Fim  ^^^^^^  ^^^^^^  Koundheads  in  the  reign  of  Charles  tke 

Now,  Echo,  on  what 's  religion  grounded  ? 

.  Roundhead. 
Who 's  its  professor  most  considerable  ? 

Rabble. 

How  do  these  prove  themselves  to  be  the  godly  ? 
D  ..t,     .   ...  Oddly. 
but  they  m  hfe  are  known  to  be  the  holy. 
T.    T-  •  O  lie ! 

Do  they  not  learning  from  their  doctrine  sever  ? 

Ever! 

Yet  they  pretend,  that  they  do  edify; 

O  fie  ! 

What  church  have  they,  and  what  pulpits  ? 

Fitts. 

Are  crosses,  images,  and  ornaments  their  scandal  ? 

All ' 

How  do  they  stand  affected  to  the  government  civil  ? 

Evil. 


TO   ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


2.  In  Uke  manner,  if  a  word  end  in  two  or  more  consonant^,  be^n  at 
Ihe  vowel  that  immediately  precedes  the  first  of  them :  for  exampIer/anA 
A  IS  farst  ot  the  final  consonants,  A  the  toatcI  that  precedes  it :  ^ee  A2iD 
and  you  will  find  band,  stand,  command,  &c.  '  * 

3.  But  if  a  diphthong,  that  is  to  say,  two  or  more  vowels  together 
precedes  the  last  consonant  or  consonants  of  a  word.  be2:in  at  the  first  of 
these  two  vowels ;  thus,  to  find  the  rhymes  to  disdain,  look  not  for  IN 
but  for  AIX,  and  you  will  find  brain,  chain,  gain,  &c. 

4.  To  find  a  word  that  ends  in  a  diphthong:  preceded  bv  a  consonant, 
Degin  only  at  the  first  vowel  of  the  diphthong;  for  example,  to  find  the 
rhvmes  to  subdue,  look  for  UE,  and  you  ^vill  find  chee,  due,  ensue,  &c. 

5.  All  the  words  that  end  in  a  single  vowel  preceded  bv  a  consonant 
are  found  by  looking  for  that  vowel  only,  except  alwavs  the  words  that 
end  in  mute  E,  which  are  constantlv  found  bv  the  same'  method  that  has 
Deen  already  prescribed  for  finding  the  vhvines  to  persuade,  whose  final 
E  IS  silent,  and  sen-es  only  to  lengthen  the 'sound  of  the  A  in  the  last 
syllabla 

AE. 

Bab,  cab  dab  mab,  nab,  Wab,  crab,  drab,  scab  stab.  AlloicabU  rhymes 
babe,  astrolabe,  &;c.    See  Directum  3.  ^ 

ACE. 

Ace,  dace,  pace,  face,  lace,  mace,  race,  brace,  chace,  grace,  place  '^pace 
trace  apace,  deface,  efface,  disgrace,  displace,  misplace,  embrace,  grimace! 
mterlace,  retrace,  populace,  &c.  Ferfect  rhymes,  base,  case,  abase,  debase, 
&c.    Allotcable  rhymes,  grass,  glass,  &c.,  peace,  cease,  &c.,  dress,  less,  &c. 

ACH. 

Attach,  detach,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  batch,  match.  &c.  AllowaUe  rhvmes 
letch,  wretch,  &c.    See  Direction  3.  '  ' 

ACK. 

Back,  cack,  hack.  Jack,  lack,  pack,  quack,  tack,  sack,  rack,  black,  clack, 
crack,  knack,  slack,  snack,  stack,  track,  wrack,  attack,  zodiac,  demoniac, 
symposiac,  ah^ianac.    Allowable  rhymes,  bake,  take,  &c.,  neck,  speck,  &c. 

ACT. 

Act,  fact,  pact,  tract,  attract,  abstract,  extract,  compact,  contract,  de 
tract,  distract,  exact,  protract,  enact,  infract,  subtract,  transact,  cataract, 
imth  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ack,  as  backed,  hacked,  &c. 
Alloicable  rhymes,  the  preterits  a7id  participles  of  verbs  in  ake,  as  baked, 
caked,  &rc.    See  Direction  3. 


But  to  the  King  they  say  they  are  most  loyal. 

Lie  all.. 

Then  God  keep  King  and  state  from  these  same  men. 

Amen. 

It  remains  to  be  observed :  1.  That  the  two  correspondina:  syllables  of  a 
rhyme  must  not  only  begin  then-  consonance  with  the  accented  vo^el,  but 
must  preserve  through  the  remaining  letters ;  thus,  text  and  vext,  song 
and  long  echo  with  one  another  respectivelv,  in  the  soimds  ext  and  otio-. 

2.  The  sounds,  and  not  the  letters,  constitute  the  rhyme.  Thus,  "^mnff 
and  rough,  blew  and  grew,  though  different  to  the  eye,"  form  an  unobjec- 
tionable rhyme ;  but  bough  and  tough,  though  similar  to  the  eve,  have  no 
similarity  m  sound. 

3.  The'  letter  or  letters  in  the  syllable  which  precede  the  accented  vowel, 
must  be  different  in  form  and  sound,  otherwise^ the  consonance  will  be  dis- 
agreeable to  the  ear.  Hence,  tend  and  the  last  svllabie  in  contend  serU  and 
scent  are  cot  allowable  rhymes. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


245 


AD. 

Add,  bad,  dad,  gad,  had,  lad,  mad,  pad,  sad,  brad,  clad,  glad,  plad,  chad, 
&c.    Allowable  rhymes,  cade,  fade,  &c.,  glede,  bead,  read,  &c.    See  Direc- 

tl07l  3. 

ADE. 

Cade,  fade,  made,  jade,  lade,  wade,  blade,  glade,  shade,  spade,  trade,  de 
grade,  evade,  dissuade,  invade,  persuade,  blockade,  brigade,  esplanade, 
cavalcade,  masquerade,  renegade,  retrograde,  serenade,  ambuscade,  cannon 
ade,  pallisade,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  aid,  maid,  braid,  afraid,  upbraid,  &c., 
and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ay,  ey,  and  eigh,  as  played, 
obeyed,  weighed,  &c.  Alloivable  rhymes,  add,  bad,  &c.,  bed,  dead,  &c., 
bead,  mead,  &c.,  heed,  need,  &c.    See  Direction  3. 

AFE. 

Safe,  chafe,  vouchsafe,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  leaf,  sheaf,  &c.,  deaf,  &c., 
laugh,  staff,  &,c 

AFF. 

Gaff,  chaff,  draff,  quaff,  staff,  engraff,  epitaph,  cenotaph,  paragraph,  &c. 
Perfect  rhyme,  laugh.    Alloioable  rhymes,  safe,  chafe,  &c. 

AFT. 

Aft,  haft,  raft,  waft,  craft,  shaft,  abaft,  graft,  draft,  ingraft,  handicraft. 
JPer  fect  rhymes,  draught,  and  the  preter  its  and  participles  of  verbs  in  aff  and 
augh,  as  quaffed,  laughed,  &c.  Allotuable  rhymes,  the  preterits  andpartici 
pies  of  verbs  in  afe,  as  chafed,  vouchsafed,  &c. 

AG. 

Bag,  cag,  fag,  gag,  nag,  quag,  rag,  tag,  wag,  brag,  crag,  drag,  flag,  knag, 
shag,  snag,  stag,  wrag,  scrag,  Brobdignag. 

AGE. 

Age,  cage,  gage,  page,  rage,  sage,  wage,  stage,  swage,  assuage,  engage, 
disengage,  enrage,  presage,  appenage,  concubinage,  heritage,  hermitage, 
parentage,  parsonage,  personage,  pasturage,  patronage,  pilgrimage,  villan- 
age,  equipage.  Allowable  rhymes,  edge,  Avedge,  &c.,  liege,  siege,  oblige, 
&c. 

AID,  see  ADE. 
AIGHT,  see  ATE. 
AIGN,  see  ANE. 
AIL. 

Ail,  bail,  fail,  hail,  jail,  mail,  nail,  pail,  quail,  rail,  sail,  tail,  wail,  flail, 
frail,  snail,  trail,  assail,  avail,  detail,  bewail,  entail,  prevail,  retail,  counter 
vail,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  ale,  bale,  dale,  gale,  hale,  male,  pale,  sale,  tale, 
vale,  wale,  scale,  stale,  swale,  whale,  impale,  exhale,  regale,  veil,  nightin- 
Igale,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  ^e?!,  steal,  &c.,  bell,  cell,  &c. 

AIM,  see  AME. 
AIN. 

Cain,  blain,  brain,  chain,  fain,  gain,  grain,  lain,  main,  pain,  rain,  vain, 
wain,  drain,  plain,  slain,  Spain,  stain,  swain,  train,  twain,  sprain,  strain, 
abstain,  amam,  attain,  complain,  contain,  constrain,  detain,  disdain,  dis- 
Linin,  enchain,  entertain,  explain,  maintain,  ordain,  pertain,  obtain,  refrain, 
regain,  remain,  restrain,  retain,  sustain,  appertain.  Perfect  rhymes,  bane, 
cane,  dane,  crane,  fane,  jane,  lane,  mane,  plane,  vane,  wane,  profane,  hurri 
cane,  &c.,  deign,  arraign,  campaign,  &c.,  feign,  reign,  &c.,  vein,  rein,  &c, 
Allowable  rhymes  lean,  mean,  &c.,  queen,  seen,  &c.,  ban,  can,  &c.,  den- 
pen,  (See. 

AJNT. 

Faint,  paint,  plaint,  quaint,  saint,  taint,  acquaint,  attaint,  complaint,  con 
21* 


246  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

straint,  restraint,  &c.  Perfect  rhyme,  feint.  Allowable  rhymes,  cant,  pant 
&c.,  lent,  rent,  &c. 

AIE,  see  AEE. 
AISE,  see  AZE. 

AIT,  see  ATE. 
AITH,  see  ATH. 
AIZE,  see  AZE. 

Ake,  bake,  cake,  lake,  make,  quake,  rake,  sake,  take,  wake,  brake,  drake, 
Hake,  shake,  snake,  stake,  strake,  spake,  aAvake,  betake,  forsake,  mistake 
partake  overtake,  undertake,  bespake.  Perfect  rhymes,  break,  steak,  «Scc. 
Allowable  rhymes,  back,  rack,  &c.,  beck,  deck,  &c.,  speak,  weak,  &c. 

AL. 

Cabal,  canal,  animal,  admiral,  cannibal,  capital,  cardinal,  comical,  conm 
gal,  corporal,  criminal,  critical,  festival,  funeral,  general,  hospital,  interval, 
liberal,  madrigal,  literal,  magical,  mineral,  mystical,  musical,  natural,  origi- 
nal pastoral,  pedestal,  pei-sonal,  physical,  poetical,  political,  principal, 
prodigal,  prophetical,  rational,  satrical,  reciprocal,  rhetorical,  several,  tern 
poral  tragical,  tyi-annical,  carnival,  schismatical,  whimsical,  arsenal.  Al 
lowable  rhymes,  all,  ball,  &c.,  ail,  mail,  &c.,  ale,  pale,  &c. 

ALD. 

Bald,  scald,  emerald,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of 
verbs  m  all,  aul,  a7id  awl,  as  called,  mauled,  crawled,  &c. 

ALE,  see  AIL. 
ALF. 

Calf,  half,  behalf,  &c.    Albwable  rhymes,  staff,  laugh,  &c. 

ALK. 

Balk,  chalk,  stalk,  talk,  walk,  calk,  «&c.  Pejfect  rhyme,  hawk.  Allow 
able  rhymes,  sock,  clock,  &c. 

ALL. 

All,  ball,  call,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  awl,  bawl,  brawl,  crawl,  scrawl, 
sprawl,  squall.    Allowable  rhymes,  cabal,  equivocal,  &c.    See  AL. 

ALM. 

Calm,  balm,  becalm,  psalm,  palm,  embalm,  &c.,  whose  plurals  and  third 
-persons  singular  rhyme  with  ahns,  as  calms,  becalms,  &c. 

ALT. 

^  Halt,  malt,  exalt,  salt,  vault,  assault,  default,  and  fault.  Hie  last  of  which 
%s  by  Pope  rhymed  xvith  thought,  bought,  &c. 

r.  .     ,  ALVE. 

Calve,  halve,  salve,  valve. 

A1\I. 

Am,  dam,  ham,  para,  ram,  sam,  cram,  dram,  flam,  sham,  s^-am,  epigram 
lamflS'  ^^'f^^^  rhymes,  damn,  lamb.   Allowable  rhymes,  dame,' 

AME. 

Blame,  came,  dame,  same,  flame,  fame,  frame,  game,  lame,  name,  tame, 
^ame,  inflame,  became,  defame,  misname,  misbecame,  overcame,  &c. 
Perfect  rhvmcs,  aim,  claim,  maim,  acclaim,  declaim,  ex.claim,  proclaim  re 
claim.  Alloivable  rhymes,  dam,  ham,  &c.,  hem,  them,  &c.,  theme,  scheme 
&c.,  dream,  gle&ji,  &c. 

AMP. 

^iimg^  champ  cramp,  damp,  stamp,  vamp,  lamp,  clamp,  decamp,  en 


AIDS  TO  ENGLTSII  COMPOSITION. 


247 


AN. 

Ban,  can,  dan,  man,  nan,  pan,  ran,  tan,  van,  bran,  plan,  scan,  span,  than, 
unman,  fore-ran,  began,  trepan,  courtesan,  partisan,  artisan,  pelican,  cara- 
van, &c.  Allowable  rhymes^  bane,  cane,  plain,  mane,  &c.,  bean,  lean,  wan, 
swan,  &C.J  gone,  upon,  &c. 

ANCE. 

Chance,  dance,  glance,  lance,  trance,  prance,  entrance,  romance,  advance, 
mischance,  complaisance,  circumstance,  countenance,  deliverance,  conso- 
nance, dissonance,  extravagance,  ignorance,  inheritance,  maintenance,  tem- 
perance, intemperance,  exhorbitance,  ordinance,  concordance,  sufferance, 
suatenance,  utterance,  arrogance,  vigilance,  expanse,  enhance. 

ANCH. 

Branch,  stanch,  lanch,  blanch,  ranch,  hanch.  Perfect  rhymes,  launch 
paunch. 

AND. 

And,  band,  hand,  land,  rand,  sand,  brand,  bland,  grand,  gland,  stand, 
strand,  command,  demand,  countermand,  disband,  expand,  withstand, 
understand,  reprimand,  contraband,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  wanri,  fond, 
bond,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  aiu  and  ear.,,  as  re 
mained,  leaned,  &c 

ANE,  see  AIN. 
ANG. 

Bang,  fang,  gang,  hang,  pang,  tang,  twang,  sang,  rang,  harangue,  clang. 
Allowable  rhymes,  song,  long,  &c. 

ANGE. 

Change,  grange,  range,  strange,  estrange,  arrange,  exchange. interchange. 
Allowable  rliymes,  revenge,  avenge,  &c. 

ANK. 

Eank,  blank,  shank,  clank,  dank,  drank,  slank,  frank,  spaiik,  stank,  lank, 
plank,  prank,  rank,  thank,  disrank,  mountebank,  &c. 

ANSE,  see  ANCE. 
ANT. 

Ant,  cant,  chant,  grant,  pant,  plant,  rant,  slant,  aslant,  complaisant,  dis- 
plant,  enchant,  gallant,  implant,  recant,  supplant,  transp'  tnt,  absonant,  ad- 
amant, arrogant,  combatant,  consonant,  cormorant,  proi-sstant,  significant, 
visitant,  covenant,  dissonant,  disputant,  eleganc,  elephan'  exhorbitant,  con- 
versant, extravagant,  ignorant,  insignificant,  inhabitant,  militant,  predomi 
nant,  svcophant,  vigilant,  petulant,  &c.  Alloxuable  rhynas,  faint,  paint,  &c. 
See  AINT  and  ENT. 

AP. 

Cap,  gap,  hap,  lap,  map,  nap,  pap,  rap,  sap,  tap,  chap,  clap,  trap,  flap, 
knap,  slap,  snap,  wrap,  scrap,  strap,  enwrap,  entrap,  mishap,  &c.  Allowable 
rJeymes,  cape,  tape,  &c.,  cheap,  heap,  ajid  swap. 

APE. 

Ape,  cape,  chape,  grape,  rape,  scrape,  shape,  escape,  mape,  crape,  tape, 
&c.    Allowable  rhymes,  heap,  keep,  &c. 

APH,  see  AFF. 
APSE. 

Lapse,  elapse,  relapse,  perhaps,  and  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons 
singidar  of  the  present  tense  m  ap,  as  caps,  maps,  &c.,  he  saps,  he  laps. 
&c.  AlloivaUe  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons  singidar  of 
verbs  in  ape  and  eap,  as  apes,  he  apes,  heaps,  he  heaps,  &c. 

APT. 

Apt,  adapt,  tSr;.,  rhymes,  tlie  preterits  and  participles  of  the  verbs  in  ap,  as 
tapped,  slapped,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  the 
verbs  in  ape,  as  apod,  escaned,  &c- 


248  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COilPOSITION. 

AR. 

Bar  car,  far,  jar,  mar,  par,  tar,  spar,  scar,  star,  chair,  afar,  debar,  unbar 
catarrh  particular,  perpendicular,  secular,  angular,  reg^ar,  popular,  siW 

Zt         ^5  rhymes,  bare,  prepare,  &c.,  pair,  repair,  wear,  tear* 

Barb,  garb,  &c. 

AECE. 

i  area,  parse,  Mars,  &c.   Allowable  rhyme,  scarce. 

.  — —       ,  ARCH. 
Arch,  march,  parch,  starch,  countermarch,  &c. 

Bard,  card  guard  hard,  lard,  nard,  shard,  yard,  bombard,  discard,  re 
gard,  mterlard,  retard,  disregard,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and  partliplls  lf 
verbs  m  ar,  as  barred,  scarred,  &c.   Alloivable  rhymes,  cord,  reward,  &o 

orJrAlTArZ^l^'  ^J'^r^^'  ^^y^^h  hard,  card,  see  tJie  last 

Z  l!\^     J    ^'  ^li""^'  the  preterits  and  participles  of  the  verbs 

m  ar,  or,  and  ur,  as  barred,  abhorred,  mcurred,  &c.  ^ 

ARE. 

Bare,  care,  dare,  fare,  hare,  mare,  pare,  tare,  rare,  ware,  flare,  glare,  scare, 
share,  snare,  spare  square  stare,  swai-e,  prepare,  aware,  bewarS,  compare 
declare,  ensnare.  _  Perfect  rhymes,  air,  fab-,  hair,  lair,  pair,  chair,  stair,  affair 
debonnan-,  despan-,  impair,  repair,  &c.,  bear,  pear,  swear,  tear,  wekr,  for 
bear,  forswear,  &c.,  there,  were,  where,  ere,  e'er,  ne'er,  else^vhere,  whate'er 
howe  er,  howsoe'er,  whene'er,  where'er,  &c.,  heir,  coheir,  their.  Alh>u-able 
rhymes,  bar,  car,  &c.,  err,  prefer,  and  here,  hear,  &c.,  regular,  singular 

ARES. 

Unawares.  Rhymes,  theirs,  and  the  plurals  of  norms  and  third  persons 
singular  of  verbs  in  are  air  eir,  ear,  as  care,  he  cares,  pah-,  he  pairs,  heirs, 
bear  he  bears,_&c.  The  allowable  rhymes  are  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  thl 
third  persons  singular  of  verbs  whidi  are  allowed  to  rhyme  with  the  termina 
tion  ars,  as  bars,  cars,  eiTS,  prefers,  &c. 

ARE. 

Scarf.   Allow  able  rhymes,  dwarf,  wharf. 

ARGE. 

Barge,  charge,  large,  targe,  discharge,  o'ercharge,  surcharge,  enlame 
Allovjable  rhymes,  verge,  emerge,  gorge,  forge,  ui-ge,  &c. 

ARK. 

Bark,  cark,  dark,  dark  lark,  mark,  park,  shark,  spark,  stark,  embark 
remark,  &o    Allowable  rhymes,  cork,  fork,  &c.  '  > 

ARL. 

Suarl,  marl,  pari.    Allowable  rhymes,  curl,  furl,  &c. 

ARM. 

Arm,  barm,  charm,  farm,  harm,  alarm,  disarm.  Alloioable  rhymes,  wana 
swarm,  storm,  &c.  y      ,  « 

ARN. 

Barn,  yarn,  &c.   Allowable  rhymes,  warn,  forewarn,  &c.,  horn,  morn,  &o 
ARN. 

Warn,  forwarn.   Perfect  rhymes,  horn   mom,  &c.   AUowabU  rhvmem 
barn,  yarn,  &c.  '  * 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  249 
AEP. 

Carp,  harp,  sharp,  counterscarp,  &c.    Allowable  rhyme,  warp, 
AESH. 

Harsh,  marsh,  &c. 

ART. 

Art,  cart,  dart,  hart,  mart,  part,  smart,  tart,  start,  apart,  depart,  impart 
dispart,  counterpart.  Perfect  rhymes,  heart,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  wart 
thwart,  &c.,  hurt,  &c.,  dht,  flirt,  &c.,  pert,  &c. 

ART  (sounded  CRT). 

Wart,  thwart,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  short,  retort,  &c.  Allowable  rhymeyS,, 
art,  sport,  court,  &c. 

ARTH,  see  EARTH. 
ARVE. 

Carve,  starve,  &c.   Allowable  rhymes,  nerve,  deserve,  &c. 

AS. 

Was.   Allowable  rhymes,  has  as. 

ASS. 

Ass)  brass,  class,  grass,  lass,  mass,  pass,  alas,  amass,  cuirass,  repass,  sui> 
pass,  morass,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  base,  face,  deface,  &c.,  loss,  toss,  &o 
ASE,  see  ACE. 
ASH. 

Ash,  cash,  dash,  clash,  crash,  flash,  gash,  gnash,  hash,  lash,  plash,  rash, 
tlirash,  slash,  trash,  abash,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  wash,  quash,  &c.,  leash 
&c. 

ASH. 

Wash,  quash,  &c.   Attoivable  rhymes,  cash,  dash,  &c. 

ASK. 

Ask,  task,  bask,  cask,  flask,  ma^k. 

ASP. 

Asp,  clasp,  gasp,  grasp,  hasp.    Allowable  rhymes,  wasp,  &c. 

AST. 

Cast,  last,  blast,'  mast,  past,  vast,  fast,  aghast,  avast,  forecast,  overcast, 
outcast,  repaet.  Perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ass, 
as  classed,  amassed,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of 
verbs  in  ace,  as  placed,  &c.    NoWiis  and  verbs  in  aste,  as  taste,  waste,  &c. 

ASTE. 

Baste,  chaste,  haste,  paste,  taste,  waste,  distaste.  Perfect  rhymes,  waist, 
and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ace,  as  faced,  placed,  &c.  AlloW" 
able  rhymes,  cast,  fast,  &c.,  best,  nest,  &c.,  a7id  the  preterits  and  participles 
of  verbs  in  ess,  as  messed,  dressed,  &c. 

AT. 

At,  bat,  cat,  hat,  fat,  mat,  pat,  rat,  sat,  tat,  vat,  brat,  chat,  flat,  plat,  sprat, 
that,  gnat.    Allowable  rhymes,  bate,  hate,  &c. 

ATCH. 

Catch,  match,  hatch,  latch,  patch,  scratch,  smatch,  snatch,  despatch. 
ATE. 

Bate,  date,  fate,  gate,  grate,  hate,  tate,  mate,  pate,  plate,  prate,  rate,  sate, 
state,  scate,  slate,  abate,  belate,  collate,  create,  debate,  elate,  dilate,  estate,  * 
mgrate,  innate,  rebate,  relate,  sedate,  translate,  abdicate,  abominate,  abro- 
gate, accelerate,  accommodate,  accumulate,  accurate,  adequate,  affection- 
ate, advocate,  adulterate,  aggravate,  agitate,  alienate,  animate,  annihilate, 
antedate,  anticipate,  antiquate,  arbitrate,  arrogate,  articulate,  assassinate, 
calculate,  capitulate,  captivate,  celebrate,  circulate,  coagulate,  commemor- 
ate, commiserate,  communicate,  compassionate,  confederate,  congratulate, 
congregate,  consecrate,  contaminate,  corroborate,  cultivate,  candidate,  coop- 


250  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

erate,  celebrate,  considerate,  consulate,  capacitate,  debilitate,  dedicate,  de 
generate,  delegate,  delioerate,  denominate,  depopulate,  dislocate,  deprecate, 
discriminate,  derogate,  dissipate,  delicate,  disconsolate,'  desperate  deprecate 
educate,  efFemmate,  elevate,  emulate,  estimate,  elaborate,  equivocate,  eradi- 
cate, evaporate,  exaggerate,  exasperate,  expostulate,  exterminate,  extricate, 
tacihtate,  fortunate,  generate,  gratulate,  hesitate,  illiterate,  illuminate,  irritate 
imitate,  immoderate,  impetrate,  importunate,  imprecate,  inanimate,  inno- 
vate, instigate,  intemperate,  intimate,  intimidate,  intoxicate,  intricate,  iu 
rahdate  inveterate,  inviolate,  legitimate,  magistrate,  meditate,  miti4te. 
moderate,  necessitate,  nominate,  obstinate,  participate,  passionate,  penetrate 
perpetrate,  personate,  potentate,  precipitate,  predestinate,  predominate 
premeditate,  prevaricate,  procrastinate,  profligate,  prognosticate,  propae-ate 
recriminate,  regenerate,  regulate,  reiterate,  reprobate,  reverberate,  rumin! 
ate,  separate,  sophisticate,  stipulate,  subjugate,  subordinate,  suffocate,  ter 
minate,  tolerate,  temperate,  vindicate,  violate,  unfortunate.  Perfect  rhymes, 
bait,  plait,  strait,  wait,  await,  great.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  eight,  weight 
height,  straight.  Allowable  rhymes,  beat,  heat,  &c.,  bat,  cat,  &c.,  bet,  wet, ^c. 

Bath,  path,  &c.    Alloivahle  rhymes,  hath,  faith,  &c. 

ATHE. 

Bathe,  swathe,  lathe,  rathe. 

AUB,  see  OB. 
AUCE,  see  AUSE. 
AUCH,  see  OACH. 
AUD. 

Fraud,  laud,  applaud,  defraud.  Perfect  rhymes,  broad,  abroad,  bawd ;  cmk 
the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  aw,  as  gnawed,  sawed,  &c.  Mlowahlt 
Thymes,  odd,  nod,  &c.,  ode,  bode,  &c. ;  also  the  word  load. 

AVE. 

Cave,  brave,  gave,  grave,  crave,  lave,  nave,  knave,  pave,  rave,  save,  shave, 
slave,  stave,  wave,  behave,  deprave,  engrave,  outbrave,  forgave,  misgave, 
architrave.    Allowable  rhyme,  the  auxiliary  verb  have. 

AUGH,  see  AFF. 
AUGHT,  see  OUGHT. 
AULT,  see  ALT. 
AUNCH. 

Launch,  paunch,  haunch,  staunch,  &c. 

AUNCE,  see  ONSE. 
AUNT. 

Aunt,  daunt,  gaunt,  haunt,  jaunt,  taunt,  vaunt,  avaunt.    Perfect  rhymes 
Blant,  aslant.    Allowable  rhymes,  want,  &c.,  pant,  cant,  &c.. 

AUSE. 

Cause,  pause,  clause,  applause,  because.  Perfect  rhymes,  the  plurals  of 
nouns,  and  third  persons  singular  of  verbs  in  aw,  as  laws,  he  draws,  &c. 
Allowable  rhyme,  was. 

AUST,  see  OST, 
AW. 

Craw,  daw,  law,  chaw,  claw,  draw,  flaw,  gnaw,  jaw,  law,  maw,  paw,  raw, 
«iaw,  straw,  thaw,  withdraw,  foresaw. 

AWD,  see  AUD. 

AWK,  see  ALK. 

AWL. 

Bawl,  brawl,  drawl,  crawl,  scrawl,  sprawl,  squall.  Perfect  rhymes,  balL 
eall,  fall,  gaU,  smaU,  hall,  pall,  tall,  wall,  stall,  install,  forestall,  thrall,  inthralT 


\ 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  251 


AWN. 

Dawn,  brawn,  fawn,  pawn,  spawn,  drawn,  yawn,  lawn,  withdrawn. 
AX. 

Ax,  tax,  wax,  relax,  flax.  Perfect  rhymes^  the  plurals  ofnotms,  and  third 
perso7is  singular  of  verbs  in  ack,  as  backs,  sacks,  &c.,  he  lacks,  he  packs,  &c. 
Allowable  rhymes^  the  plurals  of  nouns,  amd  third  persons  siiigidar  of  verbs  in 
ake,  as  cakes,  lakes,  &c.,  he  makes,  he  takes,  &c. 

AY. 

Bray,  clay,  day,  dray,  tray,  flay,  fray,  gay,  hay,  jay,  lay,  may,  nay,  pay, 
.  play,  ray,  say,  way,  pray,  spray,  slay,  spay,  stay,  stray,  sway,  aftVay,  alhay, 
array,  astray,  away,  belay,  bewray,  betray,  decay,  defray,  delay,  disarray, 
display,  dismay,  essay,  forelay,  gainsay,  inlay,  relay,  repay,  roundelay, 
virelay.  Perfect  rhymes,  neigh,  weigh,  inveigh,  &c.,  prey,  they,  convey, 
obey,  purvey,  survey,  disobey,  grey-  Allowable  rhymes,  tea,  sea,  fee,  see, 
glee,  &c. 

AZE. 

Craze,  daze,  blaze,  gaze,  glaze,  maze,  raze,  amaze,  graze.  Perfect  rhymes^ 
raise,  praise,  dispraise,  &c.,  phrase,  paraphrase,  &c.,  and  the  nozms  plural, 
and  third  persons  singular  of  the  present  tense  of  verbs  in  ay,  eigh,  and  ey ; 
as  days,  he  inveighs,  he  obeys,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  ease,  tease,  seize,  &c 
mid  keys,  the  plural  o/key ;  also  the  auxiliaries  has  and  was. 

E  and  EA,  see  EE. 
EACE,  see  EASE. 
EACH. 

Beach,  breach,  bleach,  each,  peach,  preach,  teach,  impeach.  Nearly  perfect 
rhymes,  beech,  leech,  speech,  beseech.    Allowable  rhymes,  fetch,  wretch,  &c. 
EAD,  see  EDE  and  EED. 
EAF,  see  lEF. 
EAGUE. 

League,  teague,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  intrigue,  fatigue,  &c.  Allowable 
rhymes,  Hague,  vague,  &c.,  leg,  beg,  &c.,  bag,  rag,  &c. 

EAK,  see  AKE. 

Beak,  speak,  bleak,  creak,  freak,  leak,  peak,  sneak,  squeak,  streak,  weak, 
tweak,  wreak,  bespeak.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  cheek,  leek,  creek,  meek, 
reek,  seek,  sleek,  pique,  week,  shriek.  Allowable  rhymes,  beck,  speck,  &c., 
lake,  take,  thick,  hck,  &g. 

EAL. 

Deal,  heal,  reveal,  meal,  peal,  seal,  steal,  teal,  veal,  weal,  zeal,  squeal, 
repeal,  conceal,  congeal,  anneal,  appeal.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  eel,  heel, 
feel,  keel,  kneel,  peel,  reel,  steel,  wheel.  Allowable  rhymes,  bell,  tell,  &c., 
bale,  tale,  &c.,  bill,  fill,  &c.,  ail,  fail,  &c. 

EALM,  see  ELM. 
EALTH. 

Health,  wealth,  stealth,  commonwealth,  &c, 
EAM. 

Bream,  cream,  gleam,  seam,  scream,  steam,  stream,  team,  beam,  dream. 
Perfect  rhymes,  phlegm,  scheme,  theme,  blaspheme,  extreme,  supreme. 
^  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  deem,  teem,  beseem,  misdeem,  esteem,  disesteem, 
redeem,  seem,  &c.    Alloivable  rhymes,  dame,  lame,  &c.,  limb,  him,  &c., 
them,  hem,  &c.,  lamb,  dam,  &c.    See  AME. 

EAN. 

Bean,  clean,  dean,  glean,  lean,  mean,  wean,  yean,  demean,  unclean.  ■ 
Verfect  rhymes,  convene,  demesne,  intervene,  mien.  Nearly  perfect  rhmfies, 
machine,  keen,  screen,  seen,  green,  spleen,  between,  careen,  foreseen,  afe 


252  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

obscene,  terrene,  &c.,  queen,  spleen,  &c.  Allowahle  rhymes,  bane,  mane,  &o. 
ban,  man,  &c.,  bin,  thin,  begin,  &c. 

EANS,  see  ENSE. 
EANT,  see  ENT. 
EAP,  see  EEP  and  EP. 
EAE,  see  EEE. 
EARD. 

Heard,  herd,  sherd,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits  a/nd  participles  of 
verbs  in  _er,  as  erred,  preferred,  &c.   Allowahle  rhyme,  beard,  the  preterit. 
%nd  participles  of  verbs  in  ere,  ear,  and  ar,  as  revered,  feared,  barred. 
EARCH. 

Search,  perch,  research.   Alloioable  rhymes,  church,  smirch,  lurch,  parch 
march,  &c.  i 
EARL. 

^  Earl,  pearl.  Perfect  rhyme,  gkl,  &c.  Allowahle  rhymes,  snarl,  marl,  chmrl, 
lurl,  &c. 

EARN,  see  ERN. 
EARSE,  see  ERSE. 
EART,  see  ART. 
EARTH. 

Earth,  dearth.  Perfect  rhymes,  birth,  mirth,  &c.  Allowahle  rhymes 
hearth,  &c. 

EASE,  sounded  EACE. 
Cease,  lease,  release,  grease,  decease,  decrease,  increase,  release,  surcease. 
Perfect  rhyme,  peace.   Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  piece,  niece,  fleece,  geese, 
frontispiece,  apiece,  &c.   Allowable  rhymes,  less,  mess,  &c.,  lace,  mace,  &c., 
miss,  hiss,  &c.,  nice,  vice,  &c. 

EASE,  see  ESH. 
EAST. 

East,  feast,  least,  beast.  Perfect  rhymes,  and  preterits  and  participles  of 
verbs  in  ease,  as  ceased,  increased,  &c.  Nearly  perfect  rhyme,  priest.  Al- 
lowable rhymes,  haste,  taste,  &c.,  best,  chest,  &c.,  fist,  list,  &c.,  and  thi 
•pret^irits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  esse  and  iss,  as  dressed,  hissed,  &c. 

EAT. 

Bleat,  eat,  feat,  heat,  meat,  neat,  seat,  treat,  wheat,  beat,  cheat,  defeat, 
estreat,  escheat,  entreat,  retreat,  Perfect  rhymes,  obsolete,  replete,  concrete, 
complete.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  feet,  fleet,  gleet,  gi-eet,  meet,  sheet,  sleet, 
street,  sweet,  discreet.  Allowahle  rhymes,  bate,  grate,  hate,  &c.,  get,  met,  &c.. 
bit,  hit,  &c.    See  ATE. 

EATH. 

Breath,  death,  &c,'  Allowahle  rhymes,  heath,  sheath,  teeth. 

EATHE. 

Breathe,  sheathe,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  wreath,  inwreath,  bequeath,  be  ■ 
neath,  underneath,  &c.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  seethe,  &c. 

EAVE. 

Cleave,  heave,  interweave,  leave,  weave,  bereave,  inweave.  Perfect 
rhymes,  receive,  conceive,  deceive,  perceive.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  eve, 
grieve,  thieve,  aggrieve,  achieve,  believe,  disbelieve,  relieve,  reprieve,  re 
trieve.   Allowable  rhymes,  give,  live,  &c.,  lave,  cave,  &c.,  and  have. 

EBB. 

Ebb,  web,  &c.   Allowahle  rhymes,  babe,  astrolabe,  (S:c.,  glebe,  &c. 
ECK. 

Beck,  neck,  check,  deck,  speck,  wreck.  Allowahle  rhymes,  break,  taka 
&C.5  Ibeak,  sneak  &c. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSFTION.  253 

ECT 

rJ-^^h  ^5®r*'  '^'^.'^^i^  incorrect',  collect,  deject,  detect,  direct,  dis 

[nSprf '  tf'f'  f ^J""^'  e^P^ct'  ^di'rect,  infect, 

inspect,  neglect,  object,  project,  protect,  recollect,  reflect  reject,  respect" 

rfZ  '  ?/  '^.'P'^S  architect,  circumspect,  dialect,  intellect.'  Perfcci 
Tlvymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  eck,  as  decked,  checked,  &c. 
bakeT  leaker'''  ^^''^  "'^^  participles  of  verbs  in  ake,  and  eak,  as 

ED 

mi?ipfl  ^^P^'?^'  ^""^^^^^  red  shred,  shed,  sped,  wed,  abed,  inbred 
tTrlrWrp^/f  i."  TT'         j^^'^^A,  ^^^d,  head,  lead,  read  spread,' 

thread,  tread,  behead,  o'erspread.  Allowable  rhymes,  bead,  mekd,  &c.,  blade 
ade,  6cc.,  maid,  paid,  &c.,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  m  ay,  ey 
znd  eigh,  a5  bayed,  obeyed,  veighed,  &c.  ' 

EDE,  see  EED. 
EDGE. 

mo-r^'^f Jf-'^g^V^^'^g^' pledge,  sedge,  allege.  Allowable  rhymes, 
age,  page,  &c.,  siege,  obhge,  &c.,  privilege,  sacrUege,  sortilege. 

EE 

fn^!!'  ^''f '        ^^J?®'  tliee,*tree,  agree,  decree,  degree,  disagi-ee. 

foresee,  o'ersee,  pedigree,  he,  me,  we,  she,  bl,  jubilee,  lee.  Nem^  vfrfect 
fSl\-:":  ,f^^T^i^rh;Ls,  all  words  of  on!^y[/abl 

olfhfonJ'  I'  P^^y¥^^^^''  terminations  having  the  accent 

on  the  ultimate  or  antepenultimate  syllable.  ° 

EECE,  see  EASE. 

EECH,  see  EACH.  » 
^     ^   .    ,  EED. 
.Snt'J     '  ^^^d'  ^^«d'  ^eed'  «eed,  reed,  speed 

Sip!f    '  Pr°^^e/'  succeed,  exceed.    P.r/eci  rhymes  knead,  read 

Sead  ^?;.//T'^''i;f'^'/;'°?'^"^''  ^^P^^^'  ^^P^rsede!  &c.,  bead  lead 
Sade;  Ic.    '  bed,  dead,  &c.,  bid,  hid,  &c.,  made 

EEF,  see  lEF. 
EEK,  see  EAK 
EEL,  see  EAL 
EEM,  see  EA^ 
EEN,  see  EAN. 
n        1  EEP. 

'^f  P'  H®P'  P°®P'  '^^^^P'  s^^^P'  «weep,  weep,  asleep.  JVearU 

T?       ^       ^  EEE. 

vce^SnSf'rw'  g^^^'J^^^'  P^^^'  meer,leer,  sheer,  steer,  sneer,  cheer, 
St?pr   ^'h.riSr'''  ^°"^P«er'  engineer,  mutineer,  pioneer 

Eer7?.hPrP  '  ^^^^ticker,  career,  mountaineer.    Perfect  rhymes, 

here,  sphere,  adhere,  cohere,  interfere,  persevere,  revere,  austere  severe 
sincere  hemisphere,  &c.,  ear,  clear,  dear,  fear,  hear,  near  sear  smea?' 
gear  tear,  rear,  year,  appear,  besmear,  disappear,  end^a?,  SctSei-  J? 
hwablc  rhymes,  bare,  dare,  &c  ,  prefer,  deter,  character,  &c. 

EESE,  see  EEZE. 
EET,  see  EAT. 

EETH,  see  EATH. 

EEVE,  see  EAVE. 


254 


AIDS  TO    ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


EEZE. 

Breeze,  freeze,  wheeze,  sneeze,  squeeze,  and  the  plurals  of  nom-^^s  and 
third  persons  singular^  present  tense^  of  varbs  m  ee,  as  bees,  he  sees.  Per 
feet  rhymes^  cheese,  these,  &c.  Nearly  perfect  rhyraes,  ease,  appease,  dis- 
ease, displease,  tease,  seize,  &c.,  and  tJte  phcrals  of  noims  in  ea,  as  teas, 
pleas.  &c.,  and  tlie  polysyllables  eiiding  in  es,  having  the  accent  on  the  ante- 
penukimate,  as  images,  monarchies,  &c. 

EFT. 

Cleft,  left,  theft,  weft,  bereft,  &c.    Allovjable  rhymes^  lift,  sift,  &c.,  aTM 

the  third  persons  si ngxdar^  present  tense^  of  verbs  in  afe,  aflf,  augh,  and\^^(xs 
chafed,  quaffed,  laughed,  Avhiffed,  &c. 

EG. 

Egg,  leg,  beg,  peg.  Allovjable  rhymes,  vague,  plague,  &c.,  league, 
teague,  &c. 

EIGH,  see  AY. 
EIGHT,  see  ATE. 
EIGN,  see  ALN. 
EIL,  see  AIL. 
EIN,  see  AIN. 
EINT,  see  AINT. 
EIR,  see  AEE. 
EIT,  see  EAT. 
^  EIVE,  see  EAVE. 

*  EIZE,  see  EEZE. 

ELL. 

Ell,  dwell,  fell,  hell,  knell,  quell,  sell,  bell,  cell,  dispel,  foretell,  excel, 
compel,  befell,  yell,  well,  tell,  sv/ell,  spell,  smell,  shell,  pai=aLlel,  sentinel, 
infidel,  citadel,  refel,  repel,  rebel,  impel,  expel.  Allowable  rhymes,  bale, 
sale,  &c.,  heal,  peal,  &c.,  eel,  steel,  &c. 

ELD. 

Held,  geld,  withheld,  upheld,  beheld,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits 
tnd participles  of  verbs  in  ell,  as  swelled,  felled,  &c.  Allovjable  rhymes^ 
the  preterits  and  jjarticiples  of  verbs  in  ale,  ail,  &c.,  heal,  seal,  &c.,  as  em 
paled,  wailed,  &c.,  healed,  sealed,  &c. 

ELF. 

Elf,  pelf,  self,  shelf,  himself,  &c. 

ELK. 

Elk,  whelk,  &c. 

ELM. 

Elm,  helm,  realm,  whelm,  overwhelm,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  palm, 
film,  &c. 

ELP. 

Help,  whelp,  yelp,  &c. 

ELT. 

Belt,  gelt,  melt,  felt,  welt,  smelt,  pelt,  dwelt.    Perfect  rhyme,  dealt. 
ELVE. 

Delve,  helve,  twelve,  &c.  ' 

ELVES. 

Elves,  themselves,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  the  phirals  of  nouns  and  third 
persons  singular  of  verbs  in  oii  and  elve,  as  twelves,  delves,  shelves,  &c. 

EM. 

Gem,  hem,  stem,  them,  diadem,  stratagem,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  con-. 
demn,  contemn,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  lame,  tame,  &c.,  team,  seam,  thera^ 
phlegm,  &c. 


AIDS  TO    ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


255 


EME,  see  EAM. 
EMN. 

Condemn,  contemn,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes^  gem,  hem,  &c.  AllowahU 
hymes,  lame,  tame,  &c.,  team,  seam,  &c. 

EMPT. 

Tempt,  exempt,  attempt,  contempt. 

EN. 

Den,  hen,  fen,  ken,  men,  pen,  ten,  then,  -when,  wren,  denizen.  Allowablo 
rhymes^  bane,  fane,  &c.,  mean,  bean,  &c. 

ENCE. 

Fence,  hence,_pence,  thence,  Avhence,  defence,  expense,  offence,  pretence, 
commence,  abstinence,  circumference,  conference,  confidence,  consequence, 
continence,  benevolence,  concupiscence,  difference,  diffidence,  diligence, 
eloquence,  eminence,  evidence,  excellence,  impenitence,  impertinence,  im- 
potence, impudence,  improvidence,  incontinence,  indifference,  indigence, 
indolence,  inference,  intelligence,  innocence,  magnificence,  munificence, 
negligence,  omnipotence,  penitence,  preference,  providence,  recompense, 
reference,  residence,  reverence,  vehemence,  violence.  Perfect  rhymes^  sense, 
dense,  cense,  condense,  immense,  intense,  prepense,  dispense,  suspense, 
prepense,  incense,  frankincense. 

ENCH. 

Bench,  drench,  retrench,  quench,  clench,  stench,  tench,  trench,  wench, 
wrench,  intrench. 

END. 

Bend,  mend,  blend,  end,  fend,  lend,  rend,  send,  spend,  tend,  vend,  amend, 
attend,  ascend,  commend,  contend,  defend,  depend,  descend,  distend,  ex- 
pend, extend,  forefend,  impend,  misspend,  obtend,  offend,  portend,  pretend, 
protend,  suspend,  transcend,  unbend,  apprehend,  comprehend,  condescend, 
discommend,  recommend,  reprehend,  dividend,  reverend.  Perfect  rhymes^ 
friend,  befriend,  aiid  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  en,  as  penned, 
kenned,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes.,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ean, 
a5. gleaned,  veaned,  &c. 

ENDS. 

Amends.  Perfect  rhymes^  the  plurals  of  nouns^  and  third  persons  singu 
lar, present  tense,  of  verbs  in  end,  as  ends,  friends,  he  mends,  &c. 

ENE,  see  EAN. 
ENGE. 

Avenge,  revenge,  &c. 

ENGTH. 

Length,  strength,  &c. 

ENSE,  sounded  ENZE. 
Cleanse.    Perfect  rhymes.,  the  plurals  of  nouns,  and  third  persons  single 
lar,pi-esent  tense,  of  verbs  in  en,  as  hens,  fens,  he  pens,  he  kens,  &c. 

ENT. 

Bent,  lent,  rent,  pent,  scent,  sent,  shent,  spent,  tent,  vent,  went,  absent, 
meant,  ascent,  assent,  attent,  augment,  cement,  content,  consent,  descent, 
dissent,  event,  extent,  foment,  frequent,  indent,  intent,  invent,  lament,  mis- 
spent, o'erspent,  present,  prevent,  relent,  repent,  resent,  ostent,  ferment, 
outwent,  underwent,  discontent,  unbent,  circumvent,  represent,  abstinent, 
accident,  accomplishment,  admonishment,  acknowledgnnent,  aliment,  arbi 
trement,  argument,  banishment,  battlement,  blandishment,  astonishment, 
armipotent,  bellipotent,  benevolent,  chastisement,  competent,  compliment, 
complement,  confident,  continent,  corpulent,  detriment,  different,  diffident, 
dihgent,  disparagement,  document,  element,  eloquent,  eminent,  equivalent, 
estabhshment,  evident,  excellent,  excrement,  exigent,  experiment,  firma 
ment,  fraudulent,  government,  embellishment,  imminent,  impeni.'ent,  im 


256 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


pertinent,  implement,  impotent,  imprisonment,  improvident,  impudent,  inci 
dent,  incompetent,  incontinent,  indifferent,  indigent,  innocent,  insolent 
mstrument,  irreverent,  lang-uishment,  ligament,  lineament,  magnificent 
management,  medicament,  malecontent,  monument,  negligent,  nounshment 
nutriment  Occident,  omnipotent,  opulent,  ornament,  parliament,  penitent, 
permanent  pertinent,  president,  precedent,  prevalent,  provident,  punish 
ment,  ravishment,  regiment,  resident,  redolent,  rudiment,  sacrament,  sedi 
ment,  sentiment,  settlement,  subsequent,  supplement,  intelhgent,  tenement, 
temperament  testament,  tournament,  turbulent,  vehement,  violent,  virulent 
reverent.    Allowable  rhymes,  paint,  saint,  &c. 

.  ENTS. 

Accoutrements.  Perfect  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  notms,  o/nd  third  persons 
singular,  present  tense,  of  verbs  in  ent,  as  scents,  he  assents,  &c. 

EP 

Step,  nep,  &c.   Allowable  rhymes,  leap,  reap,  &c.,  rape,  tape,  &c. 
EPT. 

Accept,  adept,  except,  intercept,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  crept,  slept,  wept, 
Kept.  Alloivable  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  particles  of  verbs  m  ape,  eep,  and 
eap,  as  peeped,  reaped,  shaped,  &c. 

ERE. 

Err,  aver,  defer,  infer,  deter,  inter,  refer,  transfer,  confer,  prefer,  parterre, 
administer,  wagoner,  islander,  arbiter,  character,  villager,  cottager,  dowager, 
torager,  pillager,  voyager,  massacre,  gardener,  slanderer,  flatterer,  idolater 
provender,  theatre,  amphitheatre,  foreigner,  lavender,  messenger,  passenger 
sorcerer,  interpreter,  officer,  mariner,  harbinger,  minister,  register,  canister 
chorister,  sophister,  presbyter,  lawgiver,  philosopher,  astrologer,  loiterer! 
prisoner,  grasshopper,  astronomer,  sepulchre,  thunderer,  traveller,  murderer! 
fisher  ^    ^^^^^^  rhymes,  bare,  care,  &c.,  ear,  fear,  «&c.,  bar,  car,  &c.,  sir, 

EECH,  see  EAECH. 
ERCE,  see  ERSE. 
ERD,  see  EARD. 
ERE,  see  EEE. 
ERGE. 

Verge,  absterge,  emerge,  immerge.  Perfect  rhyme,  dirge.  Nearly  perfect 
rhyme,  urge,  purge,  surg:e.    Allowable  rhymes,  barge,  large,  &c. 

ERN. 

^ern,  stern,  discern,  concern.    Perfect  rhymes,  learn,  earn,  yearn,  &c. 
AUoiuable  rhymes,  barn,  yarn,  &c.,  burn,  turn,  &c. 

ERSE. 

Verse,  herse,  absterse,  adverse,  averse,  converse,  disperse,  immerse  per- 
verse, reverse,  traverse,  asperse,  intersperse,  universe.  Perfect  rhymes, 
amerce  coerce,  &c.,  fierce,  tierce,  pierce,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  farce 
parce.  Mars,  &c.,  purse,  curse,  &c.  >  > 

ERT. 

\Vert,  advert,  assert,  avert,  concert,  convert,  controvert,  desert,  divert, 
exert,  expert,  insert,  invert,  pervert,  subvert.  Allowable  rhymes,  heart 
part,  &c.,  shirt,  dirt,  &c.,  hurt,  spurt,  &c. 

ERVE. 

Serve,  nerve,  swerve,  preserve,  deserve,  conserve,  observe,  reserve  dia 
serve,  subserve.  Alloioable  rhymes,  starve,  carve,  &c.,  curve,  &c. 

ESS. 

Bless,  dress,  cess,  chess,  guess,  less,  mess,  press,  stress,  acquiesce,  ac-ess 
adcu-ess,  assess,  compress,  confess,  caress,  depress,  digress,  dispossess,  dis 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


257 


tress,  excess,  express,  impress,  oppress,  possess,  profess,  recess,  repress,  re 
dress,  success,  transgress,  adulteress,  bashfulness,  bitterness,  cheerfulness, 
comfortless,  comeliness,  dizziness,  diocese,  drowsiness,  eagerness,  easiness, 
ambassadress,  emptiness,  evenness,  fatherless,  filthiness,  foolishness,  forget- 
fulness,  forwardness,  froAvardness,  fruitfulness,  fulsomeness,  giddiness, 
greediness,  gentleness,  governess,  happiness,  haughtiness,  heaviness,  idle 
ness,  heinousness,  hoaryness,  hollowness,  holiness,  lasciviousness,  lawful 
ness,  laziness,  littleness,  liveliness,  loftiness,  lioness,  lowliness,  manliness, 
masterless,  mightiness,  motherless,  motionless,  nakedness,  neediness,  nois 
omeness,  numberless,  patroness,  peevishness,  perfidiousness,  pitiless,  poetess, 
prophetess,  ransomless,  readiness,  righteousness,  shepherdess,  sorceress,  sor- 
didness,  spiritless,  sprightliness,  stubbornness,  sturdiness,  surliness,  steadi- 
ness, tenderness,  thoughtfulness,  ugliness,  uneasiness,  unhappiness,  vota- 
ress, usefulness,  wakefulness,  wantonness,  weaponless,  wariness,  willing 
ness,  Vrilfulness,  weariness,  wickedness,  wilderness,  wretchedness,  drunken 
ness,  childishness.  Alloioable  rhymes^  mass,  pass,  &c.,  mace,  place,  &c. 
ESE,  see  EEZE. 
ESH. 

Flesh,  fresh,  refresh,  thresh,  afresh,  mesh.  Alloivable  rhymes,  mash, 
flash,  &c.  ' 

ESK. 

Desk.  Perfect  Rhymes^  grotesque,  burlesque,  &c.  Allowable  Rhymes, 
mask,  ask. 

EST. 

Best,  chest,  crest,  guest,  jest,  nest,  pest,  quest,  rest,  test,  vest,  west,  ar- 
rest, attest,  bequest,  contest,  detest,  digest,  divest,  invest,  infest,  molest, 
obtest,  protest,  request,  suggest,  unrest,  interest,  manifest,  &c.  Perfect 
rhymes,  breast,  abreast,  &c.,  and'the  preterits  and<participles  of  verbs  in.  ess, 
as  dressed,mbreast,  expressed,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  cast,  fast,  &c.,  haste, 
waste,  &c.,  beast,  least,  &c.    See  EAST. 

ET. 

Bet,  jet,  fret,  get,  let,  met,  net,  set,  Avet,  whet,  yet,  debt,  abet,  beget,  be 
set,  forget,  regret,  alphabet,  amulet,  anchoret,  cabinet,  epithet,  parapet, 
rivulet,  violet,  counterfeit,  coronet,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  sweat,  threat,  &c. 
Allowable  rhymes,  bate,  hate,  &c.,  beat,  heat,  &c. 

ETCH. 

Fetch,  stretch,  wetch,  sketch,  &c.   Allowable  rhymes,  match,  latch,  &c 
peach,  bleach,  &c. 

ETE,  see  EAT. 
EVE,  see  EAVE. 
EUM,  see  UME. 
EW. 

Blew,  chew,  dew,  brew,  drew,  flew,  few,  grew,  new,  knew,  hew,  Few, 
mew,  view,  threw,  yew,  crew,  slew,  anew,  askew,  bedew,  eschcAV,  renew' 
review,  withdrew,  screAv,  interview,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  blcAv,  clue,  due, 
one,  glue,  hue,  me,  sue,  true,  accrue,  ensue,  endue,  imbue,  imbrue,  pursue, 
subdue,  adieu,  purlieu,  perdue,  residue,  avenue,  revenue,  retinue. 

EWD,  see  EUD. 
EWN,  seeUNE. 
EX. 

Sex,  vex,  annex,  convex,  complex,  perplex,  circumflex,  and  the  plurals 
of  nouns  and  third  persons  singular  of  verbs  in  eck,  as  checks,  he  checks, 
&c.  Allowable  rhymes,  ax,  wax,  &c.,  ajid  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third 
perions  singular  of  verbs  in  ake,  ack,  eak,  eke,  ique,  ike,  &c.,  breaks,  rakes, 
lie  takes,  he  breaks,,  racks,  he  ekes,  pikes,  he  likes,  he  pipes,  &c. 

22* 


258  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

EXT. 

Next,  pretext,  and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ex,  as  vexed, 
■ierplexed.  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  the  preterits  aiid  participles  of  verbs  in. 
ix,  as- waxed,  &c.  ^       i  j 

EY,  see  AT. 
IB. 

Bib,  cnb,  squib,  drib,  glib,  nib,  rib.    Allowable  rhymes,  bribe,  tribe,  &c 
IBE. 

Bribe  tnbe,  scribe,  ascribe,  describe,  superscribe,  prescribe,  proscribe, 
subscribe,  transcribe,  inscribe.    Allowable  rhymes,  bib,  crib,  &c! 

ICE. 

Ice,  dice,  mice,  nice,  price,  rice,  spice,  slice,  thrice,  trice,  advice,  entice, 
vice,  device  Perfect  rhymes,  the  nouns,  rise,  concise,  precise,  paradise 
&c.  Alloicable  rhmnes  miss,  kiss,  hiss,  artifice,  avarice,  cockatrice,  bene 
fieece'&c'"'^^'  '  P^^J^^^ce,  precipice,  sacrifice,  &c.,  piece, 

ICH,  see  ITCH. 
ICK. 

Bnck,  sick,  chick,  kick,  Hck,  nick,  pick,  quick,  stick,  thick,  trick,  arith 
metic  asthmatic,  caoleric,  catholic,  phlegmatic,  heretic,  rhetoric,  schi=;mat- 
&c  '^i?ak' VeS"^  &'c'^'^^''''^^  '^^'"'"''^^^^    y^^':  iike,  pike, 

ICT. 

Strict,  addict,  afflict,  convict,  inflict,  contradict,  c^^c.  Ferfect  rhvmes  the 
pretei-its  and.  participles  of  verbs  in  ick.  as  Hcked.  kicked.  &c.  Allowable 
rhymes  the  preterits  ayid.  participles  of  verbs  in  ike,  eak,  as  liked,  leaked,  &c. 

ID. 

^Bid,  chid,  hid  kid,  lid,  shd  rid,  bestrid,  pyramid,  forbid.  Allow^U 
rnymes,hide,  chide,  pamcide,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  the 
verbs  tn  7  le.  «.s  died,  replied,  <S:c..  lead,  bead,  mead,  deed.  need.  &c.. 
and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ee,  as  freed,  agreed,  &c.' 

IDE. 

Bide,  cMde,  hide,  glide  pride,  ride,  slide,  side,  stride,  tide,  wide,  bride, 
abide,  guide  aside,  astnde  beside,  bestride,  betide,  confide,  decide,  deride 
dmde,  preside,  provide,  subside,  misguide,  subdivide,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes 
the  pretents  ayid  participles  of  verbs  in  ie  and  y.  as  died,  rephed,  &c  ,  and 
the  participle  sighed.    Allowable  rhymes,  bead,  mead,  ^^^c,  bid,  hid,  <S:c 

IDES. 

Ides,  besides.  Perfect  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  nouns  ayid  third  persons 
singular  of  verbs  in  ide,  as  tides,  he  rides.  Allowaile  rhymes,  the  plurals 
o,  nouns  and  third  persons  singular  of  verbs  in  ead,  id,  as  beaSs,  he 
leads,  &c.,  kids,  he  bids,  &c.  ' 

Bridge,  ndsre,  abridge,  &c. 

IDST. 

Midst,  amidst,  &rc.  Pefect  rhymes  the  second  person  sina^dar  of  the 
presenttense  of  ver,,  thou  biddest,  thou  hid  d  est,  &c!  Alloiable 

-n     ^  IE  or  T. 

^  By,  buy,  cry,  die.  dry,  eye,  fir.  fry.  fie.  hie,  lie,  pie,  plv,  prv.  rve  =hr 
tje,  try,  Tie,  why.  ally,  apply,  awry,  belv,  compiv,  decrV! 
:  -  ■  ■  :  aeny,  unplv,  espy,  outvie,  ourfly,  relv,  replv.  supplV,  untie 
^^.-y^7-  ^^-Yi^tuy,  ceitiiv,  crucify,  deifv,  dignifv.  edifv,' fahifv  fortify 
granty,  g.orily,  indemnify,  justify,  ma^.ifv,  m'odifv,  moUifv,'  mori:ifV' 
pacify,  petnfy,  punfy,  putiity,  qualify,  ratifv,  rectiiV,  sanctify,  satisfV 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  259 

Bcarify,  signify,  specify,  stupify,  terrify,  testify,  verify,  villify,  vitrify,  vivify 
prophesy.  Perfed  rhymes,  higli,  uigli,  sigh,  thigli.  Allowable  rhymes,  bee, 
she,  tea,  sea,  &c.,  pleurisy,  chemistry,  academy,  apostasy,  conspiracy,  con- 
fedei-acy,  ecstasy,  democracy,  embassy,  fallacy,  legacy,  sxipremacy,  lunacy, 
privacy,  piracy,  malady,  remedy,  tragedy,  comedy,  cosmography,  geogra- 
phy, geometry,  &c.,  elegy,  certainty,  sovereignty,  loyalty,  disloyalty, 
enalty,  casualty,  ribaldry,  chivalry,  infamy,  constancy,  fealty,  cavalry, 
igamy,  polygamy,  vacancy,  inconstancy,  infancy,  company,  accompany, 
dittany,  tyranny,  villany,  anarchy,  monarchy,  lethargy,  incendiary,  infirm- 
ary, library,  salary,  sanctuary,  votary,  auxiliary,  contrary,  diary,  granary, 
rosemary,  urgency,  infantry,  knavery,  livery,  recovery,  robbery,  novelty 
antipathy,  apathy,  sympathy,  idolatry,  galaxy,  husbandry,  cruelty,  enemy 
blasphemy,  prophecy,  clemency,  decency,  inclemency,  emergency,  regency, 
progeny,  energy,  poverty,  liberty,  property,  adultery,  artery,  artillery,  bat- 
tery, beggary,  bribery,  bravery,  delivery,  drudgery,  flattery,  gallery, 
imagery,  lottery,  misery,  mystery,  nursery,  I'aillery,  slavery,  sorcery, 
treachery,  discovery,  tapestry,  majesty,  modesty,  immodesty,  honesty,  dis- 
honesty, courtesy,  heresy,  poesy,  poetry,  secresy,  leprosy,  perfidy,  subsidy, 
drapery,  symmetry,  drollery,  prodigy,  policy,  mutiny,  destiny,  scrutiny- 
hypocrisy,  family,  ability,  activity,  avidity,  assiduity,  civility,  community, 
concavity,  consanguinity,  conformity,  congruity,  diuturnity,  facility,  fal- 
sity, familiarity,  formality,  generosity,  gratuity,  humidity,  absurity,  activ- 
ityadversity,  affability,  affinity,  agility,  alacrity,  ambiguity,  animosity, 
antiquity,  austerity,  authority,  brevity,  calamity,  capacity,  captivity, 
charity,  chastity,  civiHty,  credulity,  curiosity,  finery,  declivity,  deformity, 
duty,  dexterity,  dignity,  disparity,  diversity,  divinity,  enmity,  enormity, 
equality,  equanimity,  equity,  eternity,  extremity,  fatality,  felicity,  fertility, 
fidelity,  fnigality,  futurity,  gravity,  hostility,  humanity,  humility,  im.man 
ity,  immaturity,  immensity,  immorality,  immortality,  immunity,  immuta 
bility,  impartiality,  impossibility,  impetuosity,  improbity,  inanity,  inca- 
pacity, incivility,  incongruity,  inequality,  indemnity,  infinity,  inflexibility, 
instability,  invalidity,  jollity,  lenity,  lubricity,  magnanimity,  majority, 
mediocrity,  minority,  mutability,  nicety,  perversity,  perplexity,  perspicuity, 
prosperity,  privity,  probalility,  probity,  propensity,  rarity,  rapidity,  saga 
city,  sanctity,  sensibility,  sensuality,  solidity,  temerity,  timidity,  tranquil 
ity,  virginity,  visibility,  university,  trumpery,  apology,  genealogy,  ety 
mology,  simony,  symphony,  soliloquy,  allegory,  armory,  factory,  pillory, 
faculty,  treasury,  usury,  augury,  importunity,  impunity,  impurity,  inaccu- 
curacy,  inability,  incredulity,  indignity,  infidelity,  infirmity,  iniquity,  in- 
tegrity, laity,  liberality,  malignity,  maturity,  morality,  mortality,  nativity, 
necessity,  neutrality,  nobility,  obscurity,  opportunity,  partiality,  pei-pet- 
uity,  prosperity,  priority,  prodigality,  purity,  quality,  quantity,  scarcity, 
security,  severity,  simplicity,  sincerity,  solemnity,  sterility,  stupidity. 
Trinity,  vacuity,  validity,  vanity,  vivacity,  unanimity,  uniformity,  unity, 
anxiety,  gaiety,  impiety,  piety,  satiety,  sobriety,  society,  variety,  customary, 
melody,  philosophy,  astronomy,  anatomy,  colony,  glutt-^ny,  harmony,  agony, 
gallantry,  canopy,  history,  memory,  victory,  calumny,  injury,  luxury 
penury,  perjury,  usury,  industry. 

lECE,  see  EASE- 
lEF. 

Grief,  chief,  fief,  thief,  brief,  belief,  relief,  &c.  Perfect  ^hym^.s,  reef,  beef. 
&c.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  leaf,  sheaf,  &c. 

lEGE. 

LiegOj  s'lsge,  oblige,  disoblige,  asseige,  besiege. 

TELD. 

Field,  yield,  shield,  v.'ield,  afield.  Nearly  'perfect  rhymes,  tliA  pre^^i-ita  <ma 
particijdes  of  verbs  in  eal,  as  healed,  repealed,  &c. 


i?60  AIDS  To  ENGLISH  C03irOSITION. 

lEX,  see  EEX. 
.  lEXD,  seeEND. 
lEECE,  see  ERSE. 
lEST,  see  EAST. 
lEVE,  see  EAVE. 
•  IFE. 

^  Eife,  fife,  knife,  irife,  strife,  Hfe.    Alhivahle  rhymes,  cliff,  skiff,  stiff,  whifl; 

IFF,  see  IFE. 
IFT. 

Gift,  drift  shift,  lift,_  rift,  sift,  thrtft,  adiift,  &'c.,  aiid  the  preterits  and 
participles  of  verbs  in  iff,  as  whiffed,  &c. 

IG. 

Big,  dig,  gig,  fig,  pig,  rig,  sprig,  twig,  s^ig.  Alloivahle  rhymes,  league, 
teagiie,  fatigue,  &c.  »  "ft 

IGE,  see  lEGE. 

IGH,  see  IE. 
IGHT,  see  ITE. 
IGN,  see  IXE. 
IGUE,  see  EAGUE. 
IKE. 

Dike,  like,  pike,  spike,  strike,  ahke,  dislike,  obUque.  Alloioahle  rhymes, 
leak,  speak,  antique,  &c.,  hck,  pick,  &c.  ^  ' 

ILL. 

Bill,  chill,  fill,  drUl,  gill  hill,  ill,  km,  mill,  pill,  qnill,  rill,  shriD,  fill,  skill, 
spill,  stiU,  swiU,  thrill,  till,  triU,  will,  distil,  fulful,  mstil,  codieii,  daffodiL 
utensil.  Perfect  rhymes,  all  words  ending  in  ile,  ^mth  the  accent  on  th^ 
antepenultwiate  syllahle,  as  volatile,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  bvle  chyle 
file,  teel,  reel,  ice,  meal,  peal,  seal,  &c.,  and  ivordsin  ble,  Jiavmg  the  ac' 
cent  on  the  antepenultiraate,  as  suitable,  &c. 

ILD. 

Child,  mild,  wild,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of 
verbs  of  one  syllables,  in  ile,  or  of  more  syllables,  provided  the  accent  be 
071  the  last,  as  piled,  reviled,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  par 
triples  of  verbs  in  iU,  as  filled,  willed,  &c.,  in  oil,  as  oiled,  boUed,  foiled, 

ILD. 

GUd,  buUd,  rebuild,  ^^c.  Perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of 
verbs  in  lUed,  as  filled,  willed,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  child,  mild,  a7ul  their 
oUoivabLe  rhymes,  u-hich  see. 

ILE. 

Bile,  chyle,  file,  guile,  isle,  mile,  pile,  smile,  stile,  stvle,  tUe,  vHe,  while 
awhile,  compile,  resile,  defile,  exHe,  erewmle,  reconcUe,  beguile.  Allow 
able  rhym^,  oil,  boil,  &c.,  biU,  fiU,  &c. 

ILK. 

Milk,  silk,  bilk,  &c. 

ILT. 

Gilt,  jilt,  built,  quilt,  giiilt,  hilt,  spilt,  stilt,  tUt. 

ILTH. 

FUth,  tilth,  &c. 

BI. 

Bnm,  dim,  gi-uu,  him,  rim,  skim,  slim,  trhn,  whim,  prim.  Perfect  rhymes^ 
gnb,  hymn,  limn.   Allowable  rhymes,  lime,  tune,  chmb,  &c team,  gleam, 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  261 

1MB,  see  IM. 
nu-         ■  ™' 

Chime,  time,  grime,  climb,  clime,  crime,  prime,  mime,  rhyme,  slime, 
myme,  hme,  sublime.    Allowable  rhymes,  brim,  dim,  mai-itime,  &c. 

IMES. 

Betimes,  sometimes,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  thephirals  of  nouns  and  third 
persons  singular,  present  tense,  of  verbs  in  ime,  as  chimes,  he  rhymes,  &c. 
Allowable  rhy  mes,  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons  singular,  present 
tense,  of  verbs  m  earn  and  im,  as  dreams,  brims,  he  swims,  &c. 

IMN,  see  m. 
IMP. 

Imp,  pimp,  limp,  gimp. 

IMPSE. 

Glimpse.  Rhymes,  the  plurah  of  nouns  ayid  third  persons  present  of  verbs 
in  map,  as  imps,  he  limps,  &c. 

^^ 

Chin,  dm,  fin,  gin,  gnn,  in,  inn,  kin,  pin,  shin,  sin,  spin,  skin,  thin,  tin, 
win,  within,  assassin,  javelin,  begin.  Allowable  rhymes,  chine,  dine,  &c.. 
lean,  bean,  &c.,  machine,  magazine,  &c. 

Mmce,  prmce, -since,  quince,  nnce,  wince,  convince,  evince. 

INCH. 

Clinch,  finch,  winch,  pinch,  inch. 

INCT 

Instinct,  distinct,  extinct,  precinct,  succinct,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and 
participles  af  verbs  in  ink,  as  linked,  pinked,  &c 

IND. 

Bind,  find,  mind,  blind,  hind,  kind,  grind,  rind,  wind,  behind,  unkind,  re 
mind,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ine,  as  refined.  Allow- 
able rhymes,  rescind,  prescind,  and  the  noun  wind,  as  it  is  freque7itly  pro 
nounced,  also  th^  participles  of  verbs  in  oin,  adjoined. 

INE. 

Dine,  bnne,  mine,  chine,  fine,  line,  nine,  pine,  shine,  shrine,  kine,  thine, 
tnne,  twine,  vine,  wine,  whine,  combine,  confine,  decline,  define,  incline, 
mshrine,  mtwine,  opine,  calcine,  recline,  refine,  repine,  superfine,  interline, 
countermine,  undermine,  supine,  concubine,  porcupine,  divine.  Perfect 
rhymes,  sign,  assign,  consign,  design,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  bin,  thin,  tin, 
origin,  join,  loin,  &c.,  ayid  polysyllables  ending  in  ine,  pronowiced  in,  as 
masculine,  feminine,  discipline,  libertine,  heroine,  &c. 

Bring,  sing,  cling,  fling,  king,  rin^,  sling,  spring,  sting,  string,  swing,  wing, 
wring,  thing,  &;c.,  and  the  participles  of  the  present  tense  in  ing,  with  the 
accent  on  the  antepenultimate,  as  recovering,  altering,  &c. 

I^GE. 

Cringe,  frmge,  hinge,  smge,  springe,  swinge,  tinge,  twinge,  infringe. 

T   1       I.-  I^"^- 

^  :bik,  thmk,  wmk,  drink,  blink,  brink,  chink,  clink,  link,  pink,  shrmA, 
tink,  slmk,  stink,  bethink,  forethink.  '        »  » 

Dmt,  mmt,  hint,  flint,  lint  print,  squint,  asquint,  imprint. 

IP. 

Chip,  lip,  hip,  clip,  dip,  drip,  lip,  nip,  sip,  rip,  scrip,  ship,  skip,  slip,  snip, 
strip,  tip,  trip,  whip,  equip,  eldership,  fellowship,  workmanship,  rivalship, 
and  all  words  m  ship,  with  the  accent  on  the  antepenultimate,  AltbwA 
'hymes,  wipe,  gripe,  &c.,  leap,  heap,  &c. 


262 


Gripe,  pipe,  ripe,  snipe,  type,  stripe,  wipe,  archetype,  prototype 
able  rhymes,  chip,  lip,  workmanship,  &c. 

IPSE. 

Echpse.  _  Rhymes,  the  plurals  of  noims  and  third  persons  singular,  pre- 
se7it  tense,  m  ip,  as  lips,  strips,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  nouns 
and  third  persons  smgidar,  present  tense,  of  verbs  in  ipe,  as  gripes,  wipes, 

IE,  see  UK. 
lECH,  see  UECH. 
lED,  see  UED. 
lEE. 

Fire,  dire,  hire,  ire,  lyre,  mire,  quire,  sire,  spire,  squire,  hire,  wire,  tire, 
attire,  acquire,  admire,  aspire,  conspire,  desire,  inquire,  entire,  expire,  in- 
spire, require,  retire,  transpire.  Tyre.  Perfect  rhymes,  friar,  Har,  brier,  and 
nouns  formed  from,  verbs  ending  in  ie  or  y,  as  crier,  dier,  as  also  the  com- 
parative of  adjectives  of  the  same  sounding  terminations,  as  nigher,  shier, 

lEGE,  see  EEGE. 
lEL. 

Girl,  whirl,  twirl.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  curl,  furl,  churl,  &c. 
lEM. 

Firm,  affirm,  confirm,  infirm.    Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  worm,  term,  &c. 
lEST,  see  UEST. 
lET,  see  UKT. 
lETH. 

Birth,  mirth.    Perfect  rhymes,  earth,  dearth,  which  see. 

ISS. 

Bliss,  miss,  hiss,  kiss,  this,  abyss,  amiss,  submiss,  dismiss,  remiss.  Allow 
able  rhymes,  mice,  spice,  &c.,  peace,  lease,  &c. 

IS,  pronounced  like  IZ. 

Is,  his,  whiz. 

ISE,  see  ICE  and  IZE. 
ISH. 

Dish,  wish,  fish,  cuish,  pish. 

ISK. 

Brisk,  frisk,  disk,  risk,  whisk,  basilisk,  tamarisk. 

ISP. 

Crisp,  wisp,  lisp. 

_  Fist,  hst,  mist,  twist,  wrist,  assist,  consist,  desist,  exist,  insist,  persist,  re 
sist,  subsist,  alchemist,  amethyst,  anatomist,  antagonist,  annalist,  evangelist, 
eucharist,  exorcist,  herbalist,  humorist,  oculist,  organist,  satirist,  &c.,  and 
tlie  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  iss,  as  missed,  hissed,  &c.  Allotvable 
o'iiymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ice,  as  spiced,  sliced,  &c. 

IT. 

Bit,  cit,  hit,  fit,  grit,  flit,  knit,  nit,  pit,  quit,  sit,  spht,  twit,  wit,  whit,  writ, 
admit,  acquit,  commit,  emit,  omit,  outwit,  permit,  remit,  submit,  transmit, 
refit,  benefit,  perquisite.  Allowablo  rhymes,  beat,  heat,  &c.,  bite,  mite 
light,  &c. 

ITCH  and  HITCH. 
Ditch,  pitch,  rich,  which,  fitch,  bitch,  flitch,  hitch,  itch,  stitch,  switch 
twitch,  witch,  bewitch,  nich,  enrich. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  CC MPOSITION. 


IPE. 


Allow 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


263 


ITE  and  IGHT. 

Bite,  cite,  kite,  bite,  mite,  quite,  rite,  smite,  spite,  trite,  white,  Avrite,  con 
trite,  disunite,  despite,  indite,  invite,  excite,  incite,  polite,  requite,  recite 
unite,  reunite,  aconite,  appetite,  parasite,  proselyte,  expedite.  Perfect 
rhymes,  bliglit,  beniglit,  bright,  liglit,  flight,  fright,  height,  light,  knight, 
night,  might,  plight,  right,  tight,  slight,  sight,  spright,  wight,  affright,  alight, 
aright,  foresight,  delight,  despite,  unsight,  upright,  benight,  bedight,  ovei' 
sight.  Allowable  rh^jmes,  eight,  height,  weight,  &c.,  bit,  hit,  &c.,  favorite, 
hypocrite,  infinite,  requisite,  opposite,  apposite,  exquisite,  &c. 

ITH. 

Pith,  smith,  frith. 

ITHE. 

Hithe,  blithe,  tithe,  scythe,  writhe,  lithe.    Alloiuable  rhyms,  with. 
IVE. 

I'ive,  dive,  alive,  gyve,  hive,  drive,  rive,  shrive,  strive,  thrive,  arrive,  con 
nive,  contrive,  deprive,  derive,  revive,  survive.  Allotvable  rhymes,  give, 
live,  sieve,  forgive,  outlive,  fugitive,  laxative,  narrative,  prerogative,  primi 
live,  sensitive,  vegetive,  affirmative,  alternative,  contemplative,  demoustra 
tive,  diminutive,  distributive,  donative,  inquisitive,  lenitive,  negative,  per 
spective,  positive,  preparative,  provocative,  purgative,  restorative. 

IX. 

Fix,  six,  flix,  mix,  affix,  infix,  prefix,  transfix,  intermix,  crucifix,  &c., 
and  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons  of  verbs  in  ick,  as  wicks,  licks, 
&c.  Allowable  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons  singular  oj 
verbs  in  ike,  as  pikes,  likes,  &c. 

IXT. 

Betwixt.  Iihy7}ies,  the  preterits  and  paHiciples  of  verbs  in  ix,  as  fixed 
mixed,  &c. 

ISE  and  IZE. 

Prize,  wise,  rise,  size,  guise,  disguise,  advise,  authorize,  canonize,  chas 
tise,  civilize,  comprise,  criticise,  despise,  devise,  enterprise,  excise,  exercise, 
idolize,  immortalize,  premise,  revisre,  signalize,  solemnize,  surprise,  sunnise, 
suffice,  sacrifice,  sympathize,  tyrannize,  and  the  jyh^rals  of  nouns  and  third 
"persons  singular,  present  te7ise,  of  verbs  ending  in  ie  or  y,  as  pies,  lies,  he 
replies,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  miss,  hiss,  precipice,  &c. 

0,  see  00  and  OW. 
OACH. 

Broach,  croach,  poach,  abroach,  approach,  encroach,  reproach.  Pcrfeet 
rhyme,  loach.   Allowable  rhymes,  botch,  notch,  &c.,  mutch,  hutch,  &<; 
OAD,  see  AUD  and  ODE. 
OAF,  see  OFF. 
OAK,  see  OKE. 
OAL,  see  OLE. 
OAM,  see  OME 
OAN,  see  ONE. 
OAP,  see  OPE. 
OAR,  see  ORE. 
OARD,  see  ORD. 
OAST,  see  OST. 
OAT,  see  OTE. 
OATH,  see  OTH. 
OB. 

Fob,  bob,  mob,  knob,  sob,  rob,  throb.  Perfect  rhymes,  swab,  squaD 
Allowable  rhyrries,  daub,  globe,  robe,  dub,  &c. 


264  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

« 

QBE, 

Globe,  lobe,  probe,  robe,  conglobv.  Allowable  rhymes,  fob,  mob,  &c.,  rub 
dub,  &c.,  daub,  &c. 

OCE,  see  OSE. 
OCK. 

Block,  lock,  cock,  clock,  crock,  dock,  frock,  flock,  knock,  mock,  rock, 
shock,  stock,  sock.  Allowable  rhymes,  oak,  poke,  cloke,  &c.,  look,  took. 
&c.,  buck,  suck,  &c.  j      j       i  i 

OCT. 

Concoct.  Rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ock,  ^5  blocked, 
locked,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  oak 
and  oke,  as  croaked,  soaked,  yoked,  &c. 

OD. 

Clod,  God,  rod,  sod,  trod,  nod,  plod,  odd,  rod,  shod.  Allowable  rhymes^ 
ode,  code,  mode,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ow,  as 
sowed,  did  sow,  &c. 

ODE  and  OAD. 

_  Bode,  ode,  code,  mode,  rode,  abode,  corrode,  explode,  forebode,  commode, 
incommode,  episode,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  road,  toad,  goad,  load,  &c.,  and 
the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ow,  as  owed,  showed,  &c.  Allowable 
rhymes,  blood,  flood,  clod,  hod,  nod,  broad,  fraud,  &c.    See  OOD. 

OE,  see  OW. 
OFF  and  OUGH. 

Off,  scoff,  &c.  Tbrfect  rhymes,  cough,  trough,  &c.  ARowable  rhyme. 
oaf,  loaf,  &c.,  proof,  roof,  &c.    See  OOF. 

OFT. 

Oft,  croft,  soft,  aloft,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  tit  oflf 
and  uff,  as  uff,  scoffed,  &c. 

OG. 

Hog»  tog,  cog,  dog,  clog,  fog,  Irog,  log,  jog,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  dialogue, 
epilogue,  agog,  synagogue,  catalogue,  pedagogue.  Allowable  rhymes,  rogue, 
vogue,  &c. 

OGUE. 

Eogue,  vogue,  prorogue,  coUogue,  disembogue.  Allowable  rhymes,  bog, 
log,  dialogue,  &c. 

OICE. 

Choice,  voice,  rejoice.   Allowable  rhymes,  nice,  vice,  rice,  &c. 
OID. 

Void,  avoid,  devoid,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and  participles  ofvcrls  m  oy,  as 
buoyed,  cloyed,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  hide,  bide,  ride,  &c. 

OIL. 

Oil,  boil,  coil,  moil,  soil,  spoil,  toil,  despoU,  embroil,  recoil,  turmoil,  disem 
broil.   Allowable  rhymes,  isle,  while,  tile,  &c. 

n  '       •  ■ 

,  Com,  join,  subjoin,  groan,  loin,  adjoin,  conioin,  disjoin,  enjoin,  pmioin,  re 
jom.   Allowable  rhymes,  whine,  wine,  fine,  &c.    See  INE. 

Omt,  joint,  pointy  disjoint,  anoint,  appoint,  disappoint,  counterpoint.  Al 
lowable  rhyme,  pint. 

OISE. 

Poise,  noise,  counterpoise,  equipoise,  &c.,  and  the  plurals  of  nouns,  and 
third    — ■  -  —       "   " —  "  -•• 


singular,  present  tense,  of  verbs  in  oy,  as  boys,  csloys,  &c.  Al 
lowable  rhymes,  wise,  size,  prize,  and  the  plurals  of  novms,  and  third  persons 
sin^lar^  present  tense,  of  verbs  in  ie  w  v,  as  pies,  tries,  &c. 


A.IDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  265 

OIST.  - 
Hoist,  moist,  foist.    Perfect  rhymes.,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  v&rbsm 
oice,  as  rejoiced.   Allowable  rhymes^  the  preterits  aiid  participles  of  verbs  in 
ice,  as  spiced. 

OIT. 

Coit,  exploit,  adroit,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes.,  white,  light,  might,  sight, 
nite,  &c. 

OKE. 

Broke,  choke,  smoke,  spoke,  stroke,  yoke,  bespoke,  invoke,  provoke,  ro 
voke,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes.,  choak,  cloak,  oak,  soak,  stroak.  AUo^oa 
ile  rhymes,  stock,  mock,  &c.,  buck,  luck,  &c.,  talk,  walk,  &c.,  look,  book 
fee.   See  OCK  and  OOK. 

OL. 

Loll,  doll,  droll,  extol,  capitol,  &c.  Alloiuahle  rhymes,  slU,  ball,  &c.,  awl, 
bawl,  &c.,  nole,  mole,  &c.,  dull,  mull,  &c. 

OLD. 

Old,  bold,  cold,  gold,  hold,  mold,  scold,  sold,  told,  behold,  enfold,  unfold, 
uphold,  withhold,  foretold,  manifold,  marigold.  Perfect  rhymes,  preterits 
and  participles  of  verbs  in  oil,  owl,  ole,  and  oal,  as  rolled,  cajoled,  foaled, 
bowled,  &c. 

OLE. 

Bole,  dole,  jole,  hole,  mole,  pole,  sole,  stole,  whole,  shole,  cajole,  condole, 
arole,  patrole,  pistole,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  coal,  foal,  goal,  soal,  bowl, 
roll,  prowl,  roll,  scroll,  toll,  troll,  control,  enroll,  &c.,  soul,  &c.,  to  roll,  &c. 
Allowable  rhymes,  gull,  dull,  &c.,  buU,  full,  &c.,  loll,  doll,  &c.,  fool,  cool,  &c. 

OLIN. 

Stolen,  swollen. 

OLT. 

Bolt,  colt,  jolt,  holt,  dolt,  molt,  revolt,  thunderbolt.  Allowable  rhymes^ 
vault,  fault,  salt,  &c. 

OLVE. 

Solve,  absolve,  resolve,  convolve,  involve,  devolve,  dissolve,  revolve. 
OM,  see  UM. 
OME. 

Lome,  dome,  home,  tome.   Perfect  rhymes,  foam,  roam,  comb.  AUowa 
ile  rhymes,  dumb,  hum,  come,  bomb,  &c.,  troublesome,  &c.   See  OOM. 
0MB,  see  OOM. 
OMPT,  see  OUNT. 
ON,  see  UN. 
ON. 

Don,  on,  con,  upon,  anon,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  gone,  undergone,  &c. 
Allowable  rhymes,  dim,  run,  won,  &c.,  own,  moan,  &c.,  lone,  bone,  &c. 
Amazon,  cinnamon,  comparison,  caparison,  garrison,  skeleton,  union,  juppon 

OND. 

Pond,  bond,  fond,  beyond,  abscond,  correspond,  despond,  diamond,  vaga 
bond,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  on,  as  donned,  conned, 
&c.  Allowable  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in.  one,  oan,  ana 
an,  as  stoned,  moaned,  stunned,  &c. 

ONCE,  see  UNCE*. 
ONE. 

Prone,  bone,  drone,  throne,  alone,  stone,  tone,  lone,  zone,  atone,  enthrone 
dethrone,  postpone,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  gi'own,  flown,  disown,  thrown, 
sown,  own,  loan,  shown,  overthrown,  groan,  blown,  moan,  known.  Allow 
able  rhymes,  dawn,  lawn,  &c.,  on,  con,  &c.,  none,  bun,  dun,  &c.,  mooa 
boon,  &o 

23 


266  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

ONG. 

Long,  prong,  song,  thong,  strong,  throng,  wrong,  along,  belong,  prolong. 
Allowable  rhymes,  bung,  among,  hung,  &c. 

ONGUE,  see  UNG. 
ONK,  see  UNK. 
ONSE. 

Sconce,  ensconce,  &c.   Allowable  rhymes,  once,  nonce,  askaunce,  &c. 
ONT. 

Font.  Perfect  rhyme,  want.  Allowable  rhymes,  front,  affront,  &c.,  con 
front,  punt,  runt,  &c.,  the  abbreviated  negatives,  won't,  don't,  &c. 

00. 

Coo,  woo.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  shoe,  two,  too,  who,  &c.,  do,  ado,  undo, 
through,  you,  true,  blue,  flew,  strew,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  know,  blow 
go,  toe,  &c.    See  Direction  3. 

OOD. 

Brood,  mood,  food,  rood,  &c.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits  and 
participles  of  verbs  in  oo,  as  cooed,  wooed,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  wood, 
good,  hood,  stood,  withstood,  understood,  brotherhood,  livelihood,  likelihood, 
neighborhood,  widowhood,  &c.,  blood,  flood,  &c.,  feud,  illude,  habitude,  &c., 
the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ue,  and  ew,  as  brewed,  strewed,  &c., 
imbued,  subdued,  &c.,  bud,  mud,  &c.,  and  the  three  apostrophized  auxilia 
ries,  would,  could,  ^h.o\Adi,  pronounced  wou'd,  cou'd,  shou'd,  &c.,  ode,  code, 
aTid  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ow,  as  crowed,  rowed,  &c.,  also 
nod,  hod,  &c. 

OOF. 

Hoof,  proof,  roof,  woof,  aloof,  disproof,  reproof,  behoof.  Allowable  rhymes 
huff,  ruff,  rough,  enough,  &c.,  off,  scoff,  &c. 

OOK. 

Book,  brook,  cook,  crook,  hook,  look,  rook,  shook,  took,  mistook,  under 
took,  forsook,  betook.  Allowable  rhymes,  puke,  fluke,  &c.,'  duck,  luck,  &c., 
broke,  spoke,  &c. 

OOL. 

Cool,  fool,  pool,  school,  stool,  tool,  befool.  Allowable  rhymes,  pule,  rule, 
&c.,  dull,  gull,  &c.,  bull,  pull,  &c.,  pole,  hole,  &c. 

OOM. 

Gloom,  groom,  loom,  room,  spoom,  bloom,  doom,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes^ 
tomb,  entomb,  aoid  the  city  Kome.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  whom,  womb, 
&c.  Allowable  rhymes,  come,  drum,  &c.,  bomb,  thumb,  clomb,  &c.,  plume, 
spume,  &c.,  and  from,  home,  comb,  &c. 

OON. 

Boon,  soon,  moon,  noon,  spoon,  swoon,  buffoon,  lampoon,  poltroon.  Al 
lowable  rhymes,  tune,  prune,  &c.,  bun,  dun,  &c.,  gone,  don,  &c.,  bone,  alone, 
&c.,  moan,  roan,  &c.    See  ONE. 

OOP. 

Loop,  poop,  scoop,  stoop,  troop,  droop,  whoop,  coop,  hoop,  &c.  Perfect 
rhymes,  soup,  group,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  dupe,  up,  sup,  tup,  &c.,  cop, 
top,  &c.,  cope,  hope,  &c. 

OOR. 

Boor,  poor,  moor,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  tour,  amour,  paramour,  contour. 
Allowable  rhymes,  bore,  pore,  &c.,  pure,  sure,  &c.,  your,  pour,  &c.,  door, 
floor,  &c.,  bur,  cur,  &c.,  sir,  stir,  &c. 

COSE. 

Goose,  loose,  &c.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  the  norms  deuce,  use,  &c.,  pro 
fuse,  seduce.  Allowahh  rhymes,  dose,  jocose,  globose,  &c.,  moss,  togs. 
&c.,  us,  pus,  thus,  &c. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


267 


OOT. 

Root,  boot,  coot,  hoot,  shoot.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  suit,  fruit,  &c.,  lute, 
impute,  &c.  AlhwaUe  rhymes,  rote,  vote,  &c.,  goat,  coat,  &c.,  but,  hut, 
soot,  &c.,  foot,  put,  &c.,  hot,  got,  &c. 

OOTH. 

Booth,  sooth,  smooth.    Allowable  rhyme's,,  tooth,  youth,  sooth,  uncouth, 
forsooth,  &c.    Though  these  are  frequent,  they  are  very  improper  rhymes^ 
.  the  th  in  one  class  being  flat,  and  in  the  other  sharp. 

OOZE. 

Ooze,  nooze.  Perfect  rhymes,  whose,  choose,  lose.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes, 
the  verbs,  to  use,  abuse,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  doze,  hose,  &c.,  buzz  and 
does,  the  third  persons  singalar  of  do,  with  the  plurals  of  notms,  and  third 
f)e?3yyf  singular,  present  tense,  of  verbs  in  ow,  o,  oe,  ew,  ue,  as  foes,  goes, 
throws,  t  lews,  imbues,  flues,  &c. 

OP. 

Chop,  hop,  drop,  crop,  fop,  top,  prop,  flop,  shop,  slop,  sop,  stop,  swop, 
top,  underprop.  Allowable  rhymes,  cope,  trope,  hope,  &c.,  tup,  sup,  &c., 
coop,  &c. 

OPE. 

Sope,  hope,  cope,  mope,  grope,  pope,  rope,  scope,  slope,  tope,  trope,  aslope, 
elope,  interlope,  telescope,  heliotrope,  horoscope,  antelope,  &c.,  and  ope, 
contracted  in  poetry  for  open.  Allowable  rhymes,  hoop,  coop,  &c.,  lop,  top, 
&c.,  tup,  sup,  &c. 

OPT. 

Adopt  rhymes  perfectly  with  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  op,  as 
nopped,  lopped,  &c.  Alloiuable  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs 
tn  ope,  upe,  oop,  arid  up,  as  coped,  duped,  hooped,  cupped,  &c. 

OR. 

Or,  for,  creditor,  counsellor,  confessor,  competitor,  emperor,  ancestor,  am 
bassador,  progenitor,  conspirator,  successor,  conqueror,  governor,  abhor, 
metaphor,  bachelor,  senator,  &c.,  a?id  every  word  in  or,  having  the  accent 
on  the  last,  or  last  syllable  but  two,  as  abhor,  orator,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes, 
bore,  tore,  &c.,  boar,  hoar,  &c.,  pure,  endure,  &c.,  pur,  demur,  &c.,  stir, 
sir,  &c. 

ORCH. 

Scorch,  torch,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  birch,  smirch,  church,  &c., 
porch,  &c. 

ORCE. 

Force,  divorce,  enforce,  perforce,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  corse,  coarse,  noarse, 
course,  discourse,  recourse,  intercourse,  source,  resource,  &c.  Allowable 
rhymes^  worse,  purse,  &c.,  horse,  endorse,  &c. 

ORD. 

Cord,  lord,  record,  accord,  abhorred.  Allowable  "Rhymes,  hoard,  board, 
aboard,  ford,  afford,  sword,  &c.,  word,  surd,  bird,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and 
varticiples  of  verbs  in  ore,  \ir,  and  ir,  as  bored,  incurred,  stirred,  &c. 

ORE. 

Bore,  core,  gore,  lore,  more,  ore,  pore,  score,  shore,  snore,  sore,  score, 
6Wor.3,  tore,  wore,  adore,  afore,  ashore,  deplore,  explore,  implore,  restore, 
forbore,  forswore,  heretofore,  hellebore,  sycamore.  Perfect  rhymes,  boar 
,  gore,  oar,  roar,  soar,  four,  door,  floor,  and  o'er,  for  over.  Allowable  rhymet^ 
hour,  sour,  &c.,  pow'r, /or  power ;  show'r,  for  shower,  &c.,  bur,  cur,  &c., 
poor,  your,  &c.,  abhor,  orator,  senator,  &c.    See  OOR  and  OR. 

ORGE. 

Gorge,  disgorge,  regorge,  &c.   Allowable  rhymes,  forge,  urge,  dli-ge  &ct 
ORK. 

OrK,  cork,  fork,  stork,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  pork,  work. 


268  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

ORLD. 

World  rhymes  perfectly  with  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  XiT\ 
as  hurled,  curled,  &c. 

OEM,  see  ARM. 

Form,  storm,  conform,  deform,  inform,  perform,  reform,  misinform,  uni 
form,  multiform,  transform.    Allowable  rhymes,  form  {a  seat),  a,nd  worm. 
ORN,  rhyming  with  HORN. 

Born,  com,  morn,  horn,  scorn,  thorn,  adorn,  suborn,  unicorn,  Capricorn. 
Allowable  rhymes,  the  participles  borne  {suffered),  shorn,  &c.,  the  verh 
mourn,  the  nouns  urn^  turn,  &c. 

ORN,  rhyming  with  MORN. 

Born,  shorn,  torn,  worn,  lorn,  forlorn,  love-lorn,  sworn,  forsworn,  over 
horn,  forlorn.  Perfect  rhyme,  mourn.  Allowable  rhymes,  born,  corn,  &c., 
urn,  turn,  &c. 

ORSE,  see  ORCE. 
Horse,  endorse,  unhorse.    Allowable  rhymes,  worse,  curse,  &c.,  remorse, 
coarse,  course,  corse,  &c. 

ORST,  see  URST. 
ORT,  see  ART. 
ORT,  rhyming  with  WART. 
Short,  sort,  exhort,  consort,  distort,  extort,  resort,  retort,  snort.  Allow 
able  rhymes,  fort,  court,  port,  report,  &c.,  dirt,  shirt,  &c.,  wort,  hurt,  &c. 
ORT,  rhyming  with  COURT. 
Fort,  port,  sport,  comport,  disport,  export,  import,  support,  transport,  re 
port.   Allowable  rhymes,  short,  sort,  &c.,  dirt,  hurt,  &c. 

ORTH. 

Forth,  fourth.   Allowable  rhymes,  north,  worth,  birth,  earth,  &c. 

OSE,  sounded  OCE. 
Close,  dose,  jocose.    Perfect  rhymes,  morose,  gross,  engross,  verbose. 
Mloivable  rhymes,  moss,  cross,  &c.,  us,  thus,  &c. 

OSE,  sounded  OZE. 
Close,  dose,  hose,  pose,  chose,  glose,  froze,  nose,  prose,  those,  rose,  com- 
pose, depose,  disclose,  dispose,  discompose,  expose,  impose,  inclose,  inter- 
pose, oppose,  propose,  recompose,  repose,  suppose,  transpose,  arose,  pre- 
suppose, foreclose,  &c.,  and  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  apostrophized  preterits 
and  pa/rticiples  of  verbs  in  ow,  oe,  o,  &c.,  as  rows,  glows,  foes,  goes,  &c. 
Allovjable  rhymes,  the  verbs  choose,  lose,  &c.,  and  the  plurals  of  novms  and 
third  persons  singular  of  verbs  in  ow,  rhyming  with  now,  as  cows,  and  the 
word  buzz. 

OST. 

Boss,  loss,  cross,  dross,  moss,  toss,  across,  emboss.  Alloxoable  rhymes,  ths 
notms  close,  dose,  jocose,  &c.,  and  us,  thus,  &c. 

OST. 

Cost,  frost,  lost,  accost,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  a/nd  participles  of  words  in 
oss,  as  mossed,  embossed,  &c.,  the  verb  exhaust, the  noim  holocaust. 
Allowable  rhymes,  ghost,  host,  post,  compost,  most,  &c.,  coast,  boast,  toast, 
&c.,  bust,  must,  &c.,  roost,  arid  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  oose, 
as  loosed,  &c. 

OT,  see  AT. 

Clot,  cot,  blot,  got,  hot,  jot,  lot,  knot,  not,  plot,  pot,  scot,  shot,  sot,  spot, 
apricot,  trot,  rot,  grot,  begot,  forgot,  allot,  besot,  complot,  counterplot.  AU 
iowable  rhymes,  note,  vote,  &c.,  boat,  coat,  &c.,but,  cut,  &c. 

OTCII. 

Botch,  no'xh,  &c.  Perfect  rhyme,  watch.  Allotvable  rhymes,  much 
Buoh,  &c» 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


269 


GTE. 

Note,  vote,  mote,  quote,  rote,  wrote,  smote,  denote,  promote,  remote^ 
devote,  anecdote,  antidote,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes^  boat,  coat,  bloat,  doat, 
float,  gloat,  goat,  oat,  overfloat,  afloat,  throat,  moat.  Allowable  rhymes^ 
bout,  flout,  &c.,  hot,  cot,  &c.,  but,  cut,  &c.,  boot,  hoot,  &c. 

OTH. 

Broth,  cloth,  froth,  moth,  troth,  betroth.    Perfect  rhyme,  wrath.  Allow 
able  rhymes,  both,  loth,  sloth,  oath,  growth,  &c.,  forsooth,  the  noun  mouth, 
and  tine  solemn  auxiliary  doth,  to  wliich  some  poets  add  loathe,  clothe,  bvt  1 
think  improperly.    See  GOTH. 

GU,  see  GG  and  OW. 
GUBT,  see  GUT. 
GUCH. 

Couch,  pouch,  vouch,  slouch,  avouch,  crouch.  Allowable  rhymes^  much, 
uch,  &c.,  coach,  roach,  &c. 

GUD. 

Shroud,  cloud,  proud,  loud,  aloud,  croud,  overshroud,  &c.,  and  the  preterits 
and  participles  of  verbs  in  ow,  as  he  bowed,  vowed,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes, 
the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ow,  as  owed,  flowed,  &c.,  blood,  flood, 
bud,  much,  &c. 

GVE. 

Wove,  inwove,  interwove,  alcove,  clove,  grove,  rove,  stove,  strove,  throve, 
drove.    Allowable  rhymes,  dove,  love,  shove,  glove,  above,  &c.,  move,  be- 
hove, approve,  disprove,  disapprove,  improve,  groove,  prove,  reprove,  &c. 
OUGH,  see  GFF,  GW,  and  UFF. 
OUGHT. 

Bought,  thought,  ought,  brought,  forethought,  fought,  nought,  sought, 
vrrought,  besought,  bethought,  methought,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  aught, 
naught,  caught,  taught,  &c.,  sometimes  draught.  Allowable  rhymes,  not, 
yacht,  &c.,  note,  vote,  &c.,  butt,  hut,  &c.,  hoot,  root,  &c. 

OUL,  see  GLE  and  GWL. 

GULD. 

Mould.    Perfect  rhymes,  fold,  old,  cold,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and partiet 
pies  of  verbs  in  owl,  ol,  and  ole,  as  bowled,  tolled,  cajoled,  &c.  Allowable 
rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  uU,  as  gulled,  pulled,  &c. 
OUNCE. 

Bounce,  flounce,  renounce,  pounce,  ounce,  denounce,  pronounce. 
GUND. 

Bound,  found,  mound,  ground,  hoimd,  pound,  round,  sound,  wound, 
abound,  aground,  around,  confound,  compound,  expound,  profound,  re 
bound,  redound,  resound,  propound,  surround,  &c.,  and  the  preterits  and 
participles  of  the  verbs  in  own,  as  frowned,  renowned,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes^ 
the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  one,  oan,  and  un,  as  toned,  moaned, 
sunned,  &c.,  consequently  fund,  refund,  &c.,  arid  wound  {a  hurt)  pron 
woond. 

GUMG,  see  UNG. 
GUNT. 

Count,  mount,  fount,  amount,  dismount,  remount,  surmount,  account, 
discount,  miscount.    Allowable  rhymes,  want,  font,  don't,  wont,  &c. 
GUP,  see  GGP. 
GUE. 

Hour,  lour,  sour,  our,  scour,  deflour,  devour,  &c.,  rhymes  perfectly  vnth 
bower,  cower,  flower  power,  shower,  tower,  &c.,  projwtneed  bow'r,  tow'r 
23* 


270  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

te.  ic'Tsi%i%'^Ar''  I"™'-   "°°'>  p"""-.  f-^- 

OURGE,  see  UEGE. 
OUENE,  see  ORN  and  URN. 
OURS. 

of,^Zf^T''^'^^r'^y  '^''^  ^A«y^^m^.  of  nouns  and  third  perso^ts  present 
AllrZt^h  Zt    '""'"fr  bowers,  showers,  &^ 

norTw  nvf^'^T  '^'^^^^^^^^  o/«o.m5  iA^V^  j...,^^^ present  of  verbs  in 
oor  ciTjcJ  ure,  as  boors,  moors,  &c.,  cures,  endures,  &c. 

V        ,  OURS. 

ofZrL  "'^y^'^P^f^'^^^y'^^^^^t}^  plurals  of  nouns,  and  third  persons  present 
of  verbs  tn  ure,  as  cures,  endures,  &c.  Allowable  rhyme%mB,  and  kt 
V^rfect  rhymes  and  the  plurals  of  norms  and  thvrd  persons  present  ofvTbs  m 
oor,  ore,  amd  ur,  as  boors,  moors,  &c.,  shores,  pores,  &c.,  burs,  slurs,  stirs^ 

OURSE,  see  ORCE. 

OURT,  see  ORT. 
OURTH,  see  ORTH. 
OUS,  see  US. 
OUS,  pronounced  OUCE. 
House,  mouse,  chouse,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  the  nouns  close,  dose,  lo- 
cose  &c,  deuce,  use,  produce,  &c.,  us,  thus,  &c.,  moose,  and  the  nmm 

OUSE,  pron.  OUZE,  see  OWZE. 
_    ^  OUT. 
«fn,,°f^  ' Po^t.  gout,  grout,  rout,  scout,  shout,  snout,  spout, 
S',  'P-S^'i'  ^-^^.^^t'  throughout,  hi,  rhyme! per 

/.c%  «;tiA  doubt,  redoubt,  misdoubt,  drought,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  note, 

boot'&c.'        '        '       '       '  ^""'^  ii'^t/shut;  hoot; 

OUTH. 

fu"?'  ^'''^V''  ^^^^  ^^^^i'-  verbs  to  mouth,  to 

soutn,  &;c.,  may  allowably  rhyme  with  booth,  smooth,  &c.,  which  see. 

,       ^  OW,  sounded  OU. 

iwt^Z'      k     "^^  ""^^  ^i"^'  P^°^'         ^0^'  P'-o^'  avow,  allow, 

d  saUow  endow,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  bough,  plough,  slough  {mire),  &c., 
thou,    ^/^ow^i^/e  r%»je5,  go,  no,  blow,  sow,  &c.  ' 
OW,  sounded  OWE. 

Blow,  stow,  crow,  bow,  flow,  glow,  grow,  know,  low,  mow,  row,  show, 
sow,  strow,  stow,  slow,  snow,  throw,  trow,  below,  bestow,  foreknow,  out 
grow,  overgrow,  overflow,  overthrow,  reflow,  foreshow,  &c.  Perfect  rh!ymes, 
go  no,  toe,  foe,  owe  wo,  oh,  so,  lo,  though,  hoe,  ho,  ago,  forego,  uncfergo 
dough,  loe,  sloe,  and  the  verb  to  sew  {with  the  needle.)  Allowable  rhvrSes\ 
now,  cow,  vow,  do,  &c.    See  the  last  article.  ^  ' 

^    ,  OWL,  see  OLE. 

Cowl,  growl,  owl  fowl,  howl,  prowl,  &c.    Perfect  rhymes,  scoul,  foul,  &c. 
^fowa^/e  r%OTe5,  bowl,  soul,  hoal,  goal,  &c.,  duU,  guH,  &c. 

OWN,  see  ONE. 

Brown,  town,  clown,  crown,  down,  drown,  frown,  grown,  adown,  renown, 
embrown,  &c.  Perfect  rhyme,  noun.  Alloioable  rhymes,  tone,  bone,  moan 
own,  and  the  participles,  thrown,  shown,  blown,  &c. 

OWSE,  see  OUSE. 

Blowse.  Perfect  rhymes,  browse,  trouse,  rouse,  spouse,  carouse,  souse, 
espouse,  the  verbs  to  house,  mouse,  &c.,  and  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  thira 


I 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  271 

ptrso7is  present  tense  of  verbs  m  ow,  ^5  brows,  allows,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes  ^ 
n5se,  those,  to  dose,  &c. 

OX. 

Ox,  box,  fox,  equinox,  orthodox,  heterodox,  &c.  Perfect  rhymef^^  the 
pkcrals  ofno'uns  mid  third  persons  present  of  verbs  in  ock,  as  locks,  stockSj 
&c.  Allowable  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  nouns,  and  third  persons  present  of 
verbs  in  oke,  oak,  and  uck,  as  strokes,  oaks,  cloaks,  sucks,  &c. 

OY. 

Boy,  buoy,  coy,  employ,  cloy,  joy,  toy,  alloy,  annoy,  convoy,  decoy,  des 
troy,  enjoy,  employ.  ^ZE,  see  OSE. 

UB. 

Cub,  club,  dub,  chub,  drub,  grub,  rub,  snub,  shrub,  tub.  UlowabU 
rhymes^  cube,  tube,  &c.,  cob,  rob,  &c. 

UBE. 

Cube,  tube.   Allowable  rhymes,  club,  cub,  &c. 

UCE. 

Truce,  sluce,  spruce,  deuce,  conduce,  deduce,  induce,  introduce,  produce, 
seduce,  traduce,  juice,  reduce,  &c.,  rhymes  perfectly  with  the  notms  use, 
abuse,  profuse,  abstruse,  disuse,  excuse,  misuse,  obtuse,  recluse. 

UCH,  see  UTCH. 
UCK. 

Buck,  luck,  pluck,  suck,  struck,  tuck,  truck,  duck.  Alloivable  rhymes, 
puke,  duke,  &c.,  look,  took,  &c. 

UCT. 

Conduct,  deduct,  instruct,  abstract,  aqueduct.  Perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits 
and  participles  of  verbs  in  uck,  as  ducked,  sucked,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes^ 
the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  uke  and  ook,  as  puked,  hooked,  &c. 

UD. 

Bud,  scud,  stud,  mud,  cud,  rhymes  perfectly  with  blood  and  flood.  Al 
loioable  rhymes,  good,  hood,  &c.,  rood,  food,  &c.j  beatitude,  latitude,  &c. 

UDE. 

Kude,  crude,  prade,  allude,  conclude,  delude,  elude,  exclude,  exude,  in- 
clude, intrude,  obtrude,  seclude,  altitude,  fortitude,  gratitude,  interlude, 
latitude,  longitude,  magnitude,  multitude,  sohcitude,  solitude,  vicissitude, 
aptitude,  habitude,  ingratitude,  inaptitude,  lassitude,  plenitude,  prompti 
itude,  servitude,  similitude,  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  leud,  feud,  &c.,  and  the 
preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ew,  as  stewed,  viewed,  &c.  Allowable 
rhymes,  bud,  cud,  &c.,  good,  hood,  blood,  flood,  &c. 

UDGE. 

Judge,  drudge,  gradge,  trudge,  adjudge,  prejudge. 

UE,  see  EW. 
UFF. 

Buff,  cuff,  bluff",  huff,  gruff",  luff,  puff,  snuff,  stuff,  raff,  rebuff,  counterb  a  0; 
fee.  Perfect  rhymes,  rough,  tough,  enough,  slough,  {cast  skin),  chough, 
&c.    Allowable  rhymes,  loaf,  oaf,  &c. 

UFT. 

Tuft.  Perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  uff,  as 
cuffed,  stuffed  &c. 

UG. 

Lug,  bug,  dj^g,  drug,  hug,  rug,  slug,  snug,  mug,  shrug,  pug.  Adotvabic 
fiymes,  vogue  rog'je-  &c. 

UICE,  see  USE. 
UISE,  see  ISE  and  USE. 


272  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COIIPOSITION. 


UIE,  see  IE. 
UKE. 


n  n  ,  1,         ,  and  ULL. 

«/^7.  w  d    V^i"'?^^'.^'^'  anrml,  disannul.  AUow^ 

^^llZt'.^tl'?f'  'buU,  pull,  full,  bountifill,  fanciful,  sorrow- 

Vt^'  yonderful,  worshipful,  and  every  word  endik?  in  ful 

luMvms  the  accent  nn.  thp.  nnt^'^^^-.n.U.-^^A.  ^  "^"ioq  lu* 


the  accent  on  the  antepetiultimate  syllable 

cuu,  duU,  wool,  fuU,  bountiful,  &c.    See  the  last  article. 

1      .  .  ,  ULGE. 
iiulge,  indule,  divulge,  &c. 

TTLK 

Bulk,  hulk,  skulk. 

ULSE. 

rulse,  repulse,  Impulse,  expulse,  convulse. 

ULT. 

auX^^s^^X^CiT'''  '"'"^'^  insult,  difficult,  &c.  Altau> 

mi. 

fi^i'-,^'  drum  grum,  gum,  hum  mum,  scum,  pmm,  stum,  sum,  swum, 
thrum.  Perfect  rhymes,  thumb,  dumb,  succumb,  come,  become,  overcome 
burthensome,  cumbersome,  froUcsome,  humorsome,  quarrelsome,  trouble^ 
some,  martyrdom,  Christendom,  Allowable  rhymes,  fume,  plume,  rheum 
and  room,  doom,  tomb,  hecatomb.  ^       '  rueum, 

TOIE. 

Fume,  plume,  assume,  consume,  perfume,  resume,  presume,  deplume. 
UMP. 

c'lom^^'  ^'^P'  stump,  trump,  thump.  Pcr/d5« 

_    '  UN. 

Dun,  gim,  nun,  pun,  ran,  sun,  shun,  tun,  stun,  spun,  begun.  Perfect 
rhymes  son,  won,  ton,  done,  one,  none,  undone.  Mlotoabl^  rhymes,  on 
gone,  &c.,  tune,  prune,  &c.  See  ON. 

UNCE. 

Dunce,  once,  &g.   Allowable  rhymes,  sconce. 

UNCH. 

Bunch,  punch,  hunch,  lunch,  munch. 

UND. 

Fund,  refund.  Perfect  rhymes  the  preterits  and  participles  of  ve^-hs  hi,  un. 
as  smmned,  cfcc.  ' 

UNE. 

June,  tune,  untune,  jejune,  prune,  importune,  &c.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes 
moon,  soon,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  \>un,^mx,  \Q.        .  ^"-^^"^ 

XING. 

Clung,  dung,  flung,  hung,  rang,  strung,  sung,  sprang,  slung,  stung,  swuuff, 
rung,  unsung.  Perfect  rhymes,  young,  tongue,  among.  Allowable  rhym^ 
Bong,  long,  &c.  o  y 

UNGE. 

Plunge,  spunge,  expunge,  &c. 

UNK. 

Drank,  sunk,  shrunk,  stunk,  spunk,  punk,  tnmk,  slunk.   Perfect  rhvmt 
monk.  ' 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


273 


UNT. 

Brunt,  blunt,  hunt,  runt,  grunt.    Perfect  rhyme,  wont  {to  be  accustomed ) 
UP. 

Cup,  sup,  up.   Allowable  rhymes,  cope,  scope,  and  dupe,  group,  &c. 
UPT. 

Abrupt,  corrupt,  inten-upt.  Perfect  rhymes,  the  participles  of  verbs  m 
op,  as  supped,  &c. 

UR 

Blur,  cur,  bur,  fur,  slur,  spur,  concur,  demur,  incur.  Perfect  rhymes,  sir, 
stir.    Nearly  perfect  rhyme,  fir,  &c.    Allowable  rhymes,  pore,  oar,  &c. 

UEB. 

Curb,  disturb.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  verb,  herb,  &c.  Allowable  rhyme, 
orb. 

UECH. 

Church,  lurch,  birch.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  perch,  search.  Allowable 
rhyme,  porch. 

URD. 

Curd,  absurd.  Perfect  rhymes,  bird,  word,  and  the  preteHts  and  participles 
of  verbs  in  ur,  as  spurred.  Allowable  rhymes,  board,  ford,  cord,  lord,  &c., 
and  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ore,  oar,  and  or,  as  gored, 
oared,  abhorred,  &c.,  also  the  preterits  and  participles  of  verbs  in  ure,  as 
cured,  immured,  &c.    See  ORD. 

URE. 

Cure,  pure,  dure,  lure,  sure,  adjure,  allure,  assure,  demure,  conjure,  endure, 
manure,  enure,  insure,  immature,  immure,  mature,  obscure,  procure,  secure 
adjure,  calenture,  coverture,  epicure,  investiture,  forfeiture,  furniture,  minia 
ture,  nouriture,  overture,  portraiture,  primogeniture,  temperature.  Allow 
able  rhymes,  poor,  moor,  power,  sour,  &c.,  cur,  bur,  &c. 

URF. 

Turf,  scurf,  &c. 

URGE. 

Purge,  urge,  surge,  scourge.  Perfect  rhymes,  verge,  diverge,  &c.  Allovt 
able  rhymes,  gorge,  George,  &c.,  forge,  &c. 

URK. 

Lurk,  Turk.  Perfect  rhyme,  work.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  irk,  jerk,  perk- 
URL,  see  IRL, 

Churl,  curl,  furl,  hurl,  purl,  uncurl,  unfurl.  Nearly  perfect  rhymes,  girl, 
twirl,  &c.,  pearl,  &c. 

URN. 

Burn,  churn,  spurn,  turn,  urn,  return,  overturn.  Perfect  rhymes,  sojourn, 
adjourn,  rejourn. 

URSE. 

Nurse,  curse,  purse,  accurse,  disburse,  imburse,  reimburse.  Perfect  rnyme, 
worse.   Allowable  rhymes,  coarse,  corse,  force,  verse,  disperse,  horse,  &c. 

URST. 

Burst,  curst,  durst,  accurst,  &c.   Perfect  rhymes,  thirst,  worst,  first. 
URT. 

Blurt,  hurt,  spurt.  Perfect  rhymes,  dirt,  shirt,  flirt,  squirt,  &c.  Allowaih 
rhymes,  port,  court,  short,  snort,  &c. 

US. 

Us,  thus,  buss,  truss,  discuss,  incubus,  overplus,  amorous,  boisterous, 
clamorous,  credulous,  dangerous,  degenerous,  generous,  emulous,  fabulous, 
frivolous,  hazardous,  idolatrous,  infamous,  miraculous,  mischievous,  moun- 
tainous, mutinous,  necessitous,  numerous,  ominous,  perilous,  poisonous, 
populous,  properous,  ridiculous,  riotous,  ruinous,  seandalous,  scrupulous. 


274  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

sedulous,  traitorous,  treaclious,  tyrannous,  venomous,  vigorous,  villainous, 
adventurous,  adulterous,  ambiguous,  blasphemous,  dolorous,  fortuitous, 
sonorous,  gluttonous,  gratuitous,  incredulous,  lecherous,  libidinous,  mag- 
nanimous, obstreperous,  odoriferous,  ponderous,  ravenous,  rigorous,  slan- 
derous, solicitous,  timorous,  valorous,  unanimous,  calamitous.  Allowable 
rhymes,  the  noun^nse,  abuse,  diffuse,  excuse,  the  verb  to  loose,  a/iid  the 
nouns,  goose,  deuce,  juice,  truce,  &c.,  close,  dose,  house,  mouse,  &c. 
USE,  with  the  s  pure. 
The  nouns  use,  disuse,  abuse,  deuce,  truce.    Perfect  rhymes,  the  verb  to 
loose,  the  nouns,  goose,  noose,  moose.    Allowable  rhyra&s,  us,  thus,  buss,  &c. 
USE,  sounded  UZE. 
Muse,  the  verbs  to  use,  abuse,  amuse,  diffuse,  excuse,  infuse,  misuse,  pe- 
ruse, refuse,  suffuse,  transfuse,  accuse.    Perfect  rhymes,  bruise,  and  tk* 
TpluraLs  ofnoun^  and  third  persons  singular  of  verbs  in  ew,  and  ue,  as  dews, 
imbues,  &c.   Allowable  rhymes,  buzz,  does,  &c, 

USE. 

Blush,  brush,  crush,  gush,  flush,  rush,  hush.  Allowable  rhymes^  bush,  push. 
„   ,  USE. 
Busk,  tusk,  dusk,  husk,  musk. 

UST. 

Bust,  crust,  dust,  just,  must,  lust,  rust,  thrust,  trust,  adjust,  adust,  disgust- 
distrust,  mtrust,  mistrust,  robust,  unjust.  Perfect  rhymes,  the  preterits  and 
participles  of  verbs  m  uss,  as  trussed,  discussed,  &c. 

UT. 

But,  butt,  cut,  hut,  gut,  glut,  jut,  nut,  shut,  strut,  englut,  rut,  scut,  slut, 
smut,  abut.  Perfect  rhyme,  soot.  Allowable  rhymes,  boot,  &c.,  dispute,  &c. 
boat,  &c.  J      7     X-  J 

UTCH. 

Hutch,  crutch,  Dutch.    Perfect  rhymes,  much,  such,  touch,  &c. 
UTE. 

^  Brute,  lute,  flute,  mute,  acute,  compute,  confute,  dispute,  dilute,  depute 
impute,  miuute,  poUute,  refute,  repute,  salute,  absolute,  attribute,  constitute 
destitute,  dissolute,  execute,  institute,  irresolute,  persecufe,  prose^iute,  pros- 
titute, resolute,  substitute.  Perfect  rhymes,  fruit,  recrmt,  &c.  Allowable 
rhymes,  boot,  &c.,  boat,  &c.,  note,  &c.,  hut,  &c. 

UX. 

Flux,  reflux  &c.  Perfect  rhymes,  the  plurals  of  nouns  and  third  persons 
of  verbs  m  uck,  as  ducks,  trucks,  &c.  Allowable  rhymes,  the  plurals  of 
oak?  &r  P^^^^'^^^  o/  '^^rbs  in  ook,  uke,  oak,  &c.,  as  cooks,  pukes. 

Y,  see  IE. 


[It  IS  suggested  here,  that  the  student  be  exercised  in  finding  rhymes  to 
a  few  words  proposed  by  the  teacher,  and  in  his  presence;  and  that  this 
be  done  without  the  aid  of  the  preceding  vocabulary.  After  the  student 
has  exercised  his  own  inventive  powers,  he  may  then  be  permitted  to  in- 
fipect  the  vocabulary.  Such  an  exercise,  if  it  subserve  no  other  purpose 
Will  be  found  useful  in  giving  command  of  language.]  ' 


AIDB  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


275 


In  humorous  pieces,  the  poet  sometimes  takes  great  liberties  in  his 
rhymes ;  aiming  at  drollery  in  the  form,  as  well  as  the  matter  of  his 
verse.  The  following  tale  exemplifies  this  remark,  particularly  in  the 
33d  and  36th  lines,  where  the  expression  ''paws  off,  he  "  is  made  to  rhyme 
with  the  word  ''philosophy''' ;  and  below,  "  weeping  "  and  "deep  in'' ;  "Jit- 
ting  "  and  "  bit  in  "  ;  "  dioine  as  "  and  "Aquinas  " ;  "  sully  ve7^se  "  and  "  Gui- 
livers  " ;  "few  so  "  and  "  Crusoe  "  ;  "  said  he  "  and  "  ready  "  ;  "  home  as ' 
&nd"  Thomas" ;  "me  as"  "ideas";  "suffice  it  her"  and  "eyes  at  Aer" 
matter  he"  and  "battery";  "brought  her"  and  "water,"  &c. 
Although  the  tale  is  rather  long,  it  is  thought  that  the  introduction  of 
the  whole°ot  it  may  afford  instruction  as  well  as  amusement,  as  au  ex- 
ample of  this  peculiar  style. 

THE  KNIGHT  AND  THE  LADY. 
A  DOMESTIC  LEGEND  OE  THE  KEIGN  OP  QUEEN  AimB. 
BY  THOMAS  INGOLDSBY,  ESQ. 

"  Hall  I  wedded  love  !  mysterious  tie !  " 

Thomson— or  Somebody- 

The  Lady  Jane  was  tall  and  slim, 

The  Lady  Jane  was  fair. 

And  Sir  Thomas,  her  lord,  was  stout  of  limb, 
But  his  cough  was  short,  and  his  eyes  were  dim. 
And  he  wore  green  "specs,"  with  a  tortoise-shell  rim, 
And  his  hat  w  as  remarkably  broad  in  the  brim, 
And  she  was  uncommonly  fond  of  him, 

And  they  were  a  loving  pair ! — 

And  the  name  and  the  fame 

Of  the  Knight  and  his  Dame, 
Were  ev'ry  where  hail'd  with  the  loudest  acclaim ; 
And  wherever  they  went,  or  wherever  they  came, 

Far  and  wide, 

The  people  cried 
Huzza!  for  the  lord  of  this  noble  domain  — 
Huzza !  Huzza !  Huzza  !  —  once  again !  — 

Encore  !  —  Encore ! 

One  cheer  more  ! 
All  sorts  of  pleasure,  and  no  sort  of  pain 
To  Sir  Thomas  the  Good  and  the  fair  Lady  Jane ! 

Now,  Sir  Thomas  the  Good, 

Be  it  well  understood. 
Was  a  man  of  a  very  contemplative  mood  — 

He  would  pore  by  the  hour 

O'er  a  weed  or  a  flower. 
Or  the  slugs  that  come  crawling  out  after  a  shower ; 
Black-beetles,  and  Bumble-bees,  —  Blue-bottle  Flies, 
And  Moths  were  of  no  small  account  in  his  eyes ; 
An  "  Ladustrious  Flea  "  he'd  by  no  means  despise, 
While  an  "  Old  Daddy-long-legs,"  whose  "  long  legs  "  and  thighs 
Pass'd  the  common  in  shape,  or  in  color,  or  size, 
He  was  wont  to  consider  an  absolute  prize. 
Nay,  a  hornet  or  wasp  he  could  scarce  "  keep  his  paws  off  "  —  he 

Gave  up,  in  short, 

Both  business  and  sport, 


276 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


And  abandoned  himself,  tout  ejitier,  to  Philosophy. 
Now,  as  Lady  Jane  was  tall  and  slim 

And  Lady  Jane  v.^as  fair, 
And  a  good  many  years  the  junior  of  him,  — 
And  as  she, 
All  agree, 
Look'd  less  like  her  Miri, 
As  he  walked  by  her  side,  than  her  Pere,  * 
There  are  some  might  be  found  entertaining  a  notion 
1  hat  such  an  entire  and  exclusive  devotion 
To  that  part  of  science  folks  call  Entomology, 
Was  a  positive  shame, 
And  to  such  a  fair  Dame, 
Eeally  demanded  some  sort  of  apology ; 
No  doubt  it  woidd  vex 
One  half  of  the  sex 
To  see  their  own  husband,  in  homd  green  "  specs," 
Instead  of  enjoymg  a  sociable  chat, 
Still  poking  his  nose  into  this  and  to  that, 
At  a  gnat,  or  a  bat,  or  a  cat,  or  a  rat, 
Or  great  ugly  things. 
All  legs  and  wings. 
With  nasty  long  tails  ann'd  with  nasty  long  stings : 
And  they'd  join  such  a  log  of  a  spouse  to  condemn. 
One  eternally  thinking. 
And  bhnking,  and  winking 
At  grubs,  —  when  he  ought  to  be  winking  at  them. 
But  no  !  —  oh  no ! 
'Twas  by  no  means  so 
With  the  Lady  Jane  Ingoldsby  —  she,  far  discreeter, 
And,  having  a  temper  more  even,  and  sweeter, 
Would  never  object  to 
Her  spouse,  in  respect  to 
His  poking  and  peeping 
After  "  things  creeping ;  " 
Much  less  be  still  keeping  lamenting  and  weeping, 
Or  scolding,  at  what  she  perceived  him  so  deep  in. 
Tout  mt,  contraire, 
No  lady  so  fair 
Was  e'er  known  to  Avear  more  contented  an  air; 
And,  —  let  who  would  call,  —  every  day  she  was  there, 
Propoundmg  receipts  for  some  delicate  fare, 
Some  toothsome  conserve,  of  quince,  apple,  or  pear, 
Or  distilling  strong  waters,  — or  potting  a  hare,— 
Or  counting  her  spoons,  and  her  crockery-ware 
Or  else,  her  tambour-frame  before  her,  with  care 
Embroidering  a  stool,  or  a  back  for  a  chair. 
With  needle-work  roses,  most  cunning  and  rare, 
Enough  to  make  less  gifted  visters  stare. 
And  declare,  where'er 
They  had  been,  that  "  they  ne'er 
In  their  hves  had  seen  ought  that  at  aU  could  compare 
With  dear  Lady  Jane's  housewifery  —  that  they  would  swear- 

*  My  friend,  Mr.  Hood, 
In  his  comical  mood, 
Would  have  probably  styled  the  good  Knight  and  his  Lady 
Him—"  Stem-old  and  Hop-kins,"  and  her  "  Tete  and  Braidy." 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Nay  more  ;  don't  suppose 
"With  such  doings  as  those 
This  account  of  her  merits  must  come  to  a  close ; 
No ;  —  examine  her  conduct  more  closely,  you'll  find 
She  by  no  means  neglected  improving  her  mind ; 
For  there,  all  the  while,  with  air  quite  bewitching, 
She  sat  hening-boning,  tambouring,  or  stitching, 
Or  having  an  eye  to  affairs  of  the  kitchen. 
Close  by  her  side, 
Sat  her  kinsman  M' Bride, 
Her  cousin,  fourteen  times  removed  —  as  you'll  see 
If  you  look  at  the  Ingoldsby  family  tree. 
In  "  Burke's  Commoners,"  vol.  20,  page  53. 
All  the  papers  I've  read  agi-ee, 
Too,  with  the  pedigree, 
Where,  among  the  collateral  branches,  appears, 
*'  Captain  Dugald  MacBride,  Koyal  Scots-Fusileers ;  '* 
And  I  doubt  if  you'd  find  in  the  whole  of  his  clan 
A  more  highly  intelligent,  worthy  young  man,  — 
And  there  he'd  be  sitting. 
While  she  was  a  knitting-. 
Or  hemming,  or  stitching,  or  darning  and  fitting, 
Or  putting  a  "  gore  "  or  a  "  gusset,"  or  "  bit  "  in, 
Beading  aloud,  with  a  very  grave  look, 
Some  very  "  wise  saw  "  from  some  very  good  book,  — 


St.  Thomas  Aquinas ; 

Or,  Equally  charming 

The  works  of  Bellarmine  ; 

Or  else  he  unravels 

The  "  voyages  and  travels  " 
Of  Hackluytz  —  how  sadly  these  Dutch  names  do  sully  verae 
Purchas's,  Hawks  worth's, or  Lemuel  Gulliver's  — 
Not  to  name  others  'mongst  whom  are  few  so 
Admired  as  John  Bunyan,  and  Robinson  Crusoe, — 

No  matter  who  came 

It  was  always  the  same. 
The  Captain  was  reading  aloud  to  the  dame, 
Till,  from  having  gone  through  half  the  books  on  the  shelf, 
They  were  almost  as  wise  as  Sk  Thomas  himself. 

Well,  —  it  happened  one  day, 
I  really  can't  say 
The  particular  month  —  but  I  think  'twas  in  May,  — 
'Twas,  I  hvQw,  in  the  Spring  time,  —  when  "  Nature  looks  gay,*^ 
As  the  poet  obsei*ves,  —  and  on  treetop  and  spray 
The  dear  little  dickey  birds  carol  away ; 
When  the  grass  is  so  green,  and  the  sun  is  so  bright. 
And  all  things  are  teeming  with  life  and  with  light,  — 
That  the  whole  of  the  house  was  thrown  into  affright^ 
For  no  soul  could  conceive  what  had  gone  with  the  Knight 
It  seems  he  had  taken, 
A  light  breakfast  —  bacon. 
An  egg  —  with  a  little  broiled  haddock  —  at  most 
A  round  and  a  half  of  some  hot  butter' d  toast, 
With  a  slice  of  cold  sirloin  fi'om  yesterday's  roast, 


And  then  —  let  me  see  !  — 
He  had  two  —  perhaps  three 

24 


278  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

Cups  (with  siigar  and  cream)  of  strong  Gunpowder  tea. 
With  a  spoonful  m  each  of  some  choice  eau  de  vie 
Which  with  nine  out  of  ten  would  perhaps  disagree. 

In  fact,  I  and  my  son  ^ 
'.y.  "  ^^^^^  "  with  our  "  Hyson," 

Neither  having  the  nerves  of  a  bull  or  a  bison, 
And  both  hating  brandy  like  what  some  caU  »  pison  " 

No  matter  for  that  —  ^ 
rxT'^x,  ^^^^^d  f'oi"  his  hat, 

With  the  brim  that  I've  said  was  so  broad  and  so  flat, 
t  l  lC  '^^Tl  u^'^}^      tortoise-shell  rim,  and  his  cane. 
His  stem  fn  t- >  ^^^^^      ^^^d  to  sustain  ' 
His  steps  in  his  walks,  and  to  poke  in  the  shrubs 

TW  nlflf  I'  ^^^."^  unearthing  his  worms  and  his  grubs - 
Thus  armed,  he  set  out  on  a  ramble  —  alack  ! 
He  set  o^^J,  poor  dear  Soul !  -but  he  never  came  back ! 
h  irst "  dinner-bell  rang 
Out  its  euphonious  clang 

T^irTJ^  ~"  ^^""^y         t^en  —  and  the  '*  Last " 

Ding-dong  d  as  It  ever  was  wont,  at  half-past. 

While  Betsey,  and  Sally, 

And  Thompson,  the  Valet, 
And  every  one  dse  was  beginning  to  bless  himself, 
Wondering  the  Knight  had  not  come  in  to  dress  himself.  - 

O^^SrSln    u?.'  ■  will  be  cold  !  " 

i<^uoth  bal  y,    Good  gracious !  how  '  Missis '  will  scold  '  "  — 

Thompson,  the  Valet, 

Looked  gravely  at  Sally, 
As  who  should  say,  "  Truth  must  not  always  be  told '  " 
Then  expressing  a  fear  lest  the  Knight  might  take  cold. 

I  hus  exposed  to  the  dews, 

Lambs'-wool  stockings,  and  shoes. 

Of  each  a  fresh  pair, 

He  put  down  to  air, 
And  hung  a  clean  shirt  to  the  fire  on  a  chair  — 

M?l^^/  Master  was  absent -the  Cook  came  and  said  "he 
Much  fear'd,  as  the  dinner  had  been  so  long  ready. 

The  roast  and  the  boil'd 

Would  be  all  of  it  spoil'd, 
And  the  puddings,  her  Ladyship  thought  such  a  treat. 
He  was  morally  sure,  would  be  scarce  fit  to  eat !  » 

This  closed  the  debate  — 
c      xv"  'I  b^  ^^^^y  *o  wait," 

A^'?  .'[^''^     •  -      the  meal  be  served  straigh^^t 

And  let  two  or  three  slices  be  put  in  a  plate,  '^'^raignr  5 

And  kept  hot  for  Sir  Thomas,  -  He 's  lost,  sure  as  fate  ! 
And,  a  hundred  to  one,  won't  be  home  tiU  it 's  late  !  »  - 
-  Captam  Dugald  MacBride  then  proceeded  to  face 
Che  Lady  at  table, -stood  up,  and  said  grace,— 
I  hen  set  himself  down  in  Sir  Thomas's  place. 
,  Wearily,  wearily,  all  that  night. 

That  live-long  night,  did  the  hours  go  by ;  : 
And  the  Lady  Jane,  .  . 

In  grief  and  in  pain. 

She  sat  herself  down  to  cry !  

And  Captain  M'Bride 
Who  sat  by  her  side 


AIDS  TO   ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Though  I  really  can't  say  that  he  actually  cried, 

At  least  had  a  tear  in  his  eye  ! 
As  much  as  can  well  be  expected,  perhaps, 
From  very  "  young  fellows  "  to  very  "  old  chaps  ;  " 

And  if  he  had  said 

What  he 'd  got  in  his  head, 
'T  would  have  been  "  Poor  old  Buffer !  he 's  certainly  deaa  !  " 
The  morning  dawn'd,  —  and  the  next,  —  and  the  next, 
And  all  the  mansion  were  still  perplex'd; 
No  watch  dog-  "  bay'd  a  welcome  home,"  as 
A  watch  dog  should,  to  the  "  Good  Sir  Thomas ; " 

No  knocker  fell 

His  approach  to  tell, 
Not  so  much  as  a  runaway  ring  at  the  bell  — 
The  Hall  was  as  silent  as  a  Hermit's  cell. 
Yet  the  Sun  shone  bright  upon  tower  and  tree, 
And  the  meads  smiled  green  as  green  may  be, 
And  the  dear  little  dickey  birds  caroll'd  with  glee, 
And  the  lambs  in  the  park  skipp'd  merry  and  free  — 

—  Without,  all  was  joy  and  harmony ! 

"  And  thus 't  will  be,  —  nor  long  the  day,  — 

Ere  we,  like  him,  shall  pass  away ! 

Yon  sun  that  now  our  bosom  warms, 

Shall  shine,  —  but  shine  on  other  forms ;  — 

Yon  Grove,  whose  choir  so  sweetly  cheers 

Us  now,  shall  sound  on  other  ears, —  -  . 

The  joyous  Lamb,  as  now,  shall  play. 

But  other  eyes  its  sports  survey  — 

The  stream  we  loved  shall  roll  as  fair, 

The  flowery  sweets,  the  trim  Parterre, 

Shall  scent,  as  now,  the  ambient  air,  — 

The  Tree,  whose  bending  branches  bear 

The  one  loved  name  —  shaU  yet  be  there ;  — 
But  where  the  hand  that  carved  it  ?  —  Where  ?  " 

These  were  hinted  to  me  as 

The  very  ideas 
Which  passed  through  the  mind  of  the  fair  Lady  Jan©, 
Her  thoughts  having  taken  a  sombre-ish  train, 
As  she  walked  on  the  esplanade,  to  and  again, 

With  Captain  M'Bride, 

Of  course  at  her  side. 
Who  could  not  look  quite  so  forlorn,  though  he  tried. 

—  An  "idea,"  in  fact,  had  got  into  his  head, 

That  if  "  poor  dear  Sir  Thomas  "  should  really  be  dead, 
It  might  be  no  bad  "  spec."  to  be  there  in  his  stead, 
And,  by  simply  contriving,  in  due  time  to  wed 
A  lady  who  was  young  and  fail', 

A  lady  slim  and  tall, 
To  set  himself  down  in  comfort  there 

The  Lord  of  Tapton*  Hall.  — 

Thinks  he,  "  We  have  sent 

Half  over  Kent, 
And  nohody  knows  how  much  money 's  been  spent, 
Yet  no  one 's  been  found  to  say  which  way  he  went  I 


•  The  familiar  abbreviation  for  Tappington  Everard  still  in  use  among  the 
y.  —  Ylde  Prefatory  fntroduction  to  the  Jngoldsby  Legends. 


280  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

The  groom,  who 's  been  over 
n    ,i.     To  Folkstone  ard  Dover, 
Can  t  get  any  tidings  at  all  of  the  rover  ! 

A^H  w'*^  ^ith  placards  we  ' vrsuS^^^  _ 

Stolen  or  strayed, 

Lost  or  mislaid, 
A  CrENTLEMAN  ;  middle-aged,  sober  and  st^iid  • 
T„  .°f„^&.r-  ^."d  when  he  left  l^ome  was  arraved 
TT  J  i""®*^        somewhat  dingy  and  fray'd  •  — 

^^^^  ^  tortoise-shlll  rim,  ^  ' 
And  a  l^a^t^rather  lower-crown'd,  and  broad  in  the  brim,  • 

Shall  bear 
.p.       send  him,  with  care, 

AT      ,1  ^®,MUST  have  been  found. 

No-doubtless  he 's  shot-or  he 's  hang'd-or  he 's  drown'd  »  - 
Then  his  Widow  —  aye !  aye  '  »  uiuwn  a  .  — 

rr  folks  say  ?  * 

1  o  address  her  at  once  —  at  so  early  a  day  ? 

Cha^s  -^l^~fo.^::S^^,  sheep,  eyes'at  ho.!  " 

As  Captain  M'Bride  did,  ' 
C^tfl^%^''^^  made  up  his  mind  on  the  matter,  he 
Can  t  be  too  prompt  in  unmasking  his  battery. 

^"dvow'd  that  "he? eyes 
Far  exceeded  in  brilhance  the  stars  in  the  skiesf-- 
1  hat  her  lips  were  like  roses  -  her  cheeks  were  Hke  lilies  — 
Her  breath  had  the  odor  of  daffy-down  dilhes  ! 
With  a  thousand  more  compliments  equaUy  true, 
And  expressed  in  similitudes  equally  new  » 
Then  his  left  arm  he  placed 
Round  her  jimp,  taper  waist  — 
Lre  she  fix'd  to  repulse,  or  return  his  embrace. 
Up  came  running  a  man  at  a  deuce  of  a  pace, 
With  that  very  peculiar  expression  of  face 
Which  always  betokens  dismay  or  disaster, 
^^"^C^   7"^^      Gardener-  "  Oh,  ma'm !  we 've  found  master '  t» 

^   ""'Thl  mt^^otea^f^xtrl^  ^'^^^  "^^^  ~' 

He  had  no  breath  to  spare, 
But,  gasping  for  air,  he  could  only  respond 
By  pointing  — he  pointed,  alas  !  —  to  the  pond  ! 

?ergS£^or4lifrse1n1o'Sifa'^^^^^^  ^ 

When,  close  to  the  side 

Of  the  bank,  he  espied 
An  "  uncomra-n  fine  "  tadpole,  remarkably  fat; 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


281 


He  stooped ;  —  and  he  thought  her 

His  own ;  —  he  had  caught  her  ! 
Got  hold  of  her  tail,  —  and  to  land  almost  brought  her, 
When  —  he  plump'd  head  and  heels  into  fifteen  feet  water  I 

The  Lady  Jane  was  tall  and  slim, 

The  Lady  Jane  was  fair — 
Alas,  for  Sir  Thomas  !  she  grieved  for  him, 
As  she  saw  two  serving-men,  sturdy  of  limb, 

His  body  between  them  bear. 
She  sobbed,  and  she  sighed  ;  she  lamented,  and  cried. 

For  of  sorrow  brimful  was  her  cup  ;  • 
She  swooned,  and  I  think  she 'd  have  fallen  down  and  died 
If  Captain  MacBride 
Had  not  been  by  her  side. 
With  the  Gardener  ;  they  both  their  assistance  supplied, 
And  managed  to  hold  her  up  — 
But,  when  she  "  comes  to," 
Oh  !  'tis  shocking  to  view 
The  sight  which  the  corpse  reveals  I 
Sir  Thomas's  body, 
It  looked  so  odd  —  he 
Was  half  eaten  up  by  the  eels ! 
His  waistcoat  and  hose,  and  the  rest  of  his  clothes, 
Were  all  gnawed  through  and  through ; 
And  out  of  each  shoe 
An  eel  they  drew. 
And  from  each  of  his  pockets  they  pulled  out  two ! 
And  the  gardener  himself  had  secreted  a  few, 

As  well  we  may  suppose  ; 
For,  when  he  came  running  to  give  the  alarm. 
He  had  six  in  the  basket  that  hung  on  his  arm. 

Good  Father  John  * 
Was  summoned  anon ; 
Holy  water  was  sprinkled, 

And  little  bells  tinkled,  ^: 

And  tapers  were  lighted. 

And  mcense  ignited, 
And  masses  were  sung  and  masses  were  said, 
All  day,  for  the  quiet  repose  of  the  dead. 
And  ail  night  —  no  one  thought  of  going  to  bed. 

But  Lady  Jane  was  tall  and  slim, 
And  Lady  Jane  was  fair,  — 
And,  ere  morning  came,  that  winsome  dame 
Had  made  up  her  mind  —  or,  what's  much  the  same. 
Had  thought  about —  once  more  "  changing  her  nq,m0/ 

And  she  said,  with  a  pensive  air. 
To  Thompson,  the  valet,  while  taking  away. 
When  supper  was  over,  the  cloth  and  the  tray,  — 
"  Eels  a  many 

I 've  ate  ;  but  any  ^ 
So  good  ne'er  tasted  before  !  — 


*  Tor  some  account  of  Father  John  Ingoldsby,  to  whose  papers  I  am  so  mucT>  'p*- 
holden,  sec  Ingoldsby's  Legends,  first  series,  p,  216,  (2d  Edit.^  This  was  tl> 
•oclesiastical  act  of  his  long  and  valuable  life. 

24* 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


They  're  a  fish  too,  of  which  I 'm  remarkably  fond.- 
tro  —  pop  Sir  Thomas  again  in  the  pond  — 

'Poor  deal- !  '  —  he 'll  catch  us  some  mors  ! !  « 


MORAL. 


AU  middle-aged  gentlemen  let  me  ad^d^e, 
If  you  re  married,  and  have  not  got  very  good  eyes 
Don't  go  poking  about  after  blue-bottled  mes  '-  ' 
A  ^AA       sP^^^acles,  don't  have  a  tortoiseshell  rim, 
And  don  t  go  near  the  water,  -  miless  you  can  swh^  ! 

Married  ladies,  especially  such  as  are  fair, 

I  all,  and  slim,  I  would  next  recommend  to  beware, 

^.Ti'  spouse,  they  give  way  to  despah- : 

Af IoV^'°?J'^''*'  "  ^^^'^  ^^^^  doubt  on 't  - 

As  good  t7i  the  nver  as  ever  came  02^  on 't !  " 

In^^nfff  nS^^  5  ^^en  to  roaming 

In  solitude  —  raison  de  plus,  in  the  "  gloaminc^ ' '_ 

A?ri  ^Z"";.  ""u  1  ^^.^  ^^^d  sP°^se  to°come  home  m 

And  If,  when  "  last  dmner-beU  " 's  rung,  he  is  late, 
lo  msure  better  manners  in  future  —  Do  n't  wait ! 

g  of  husband  or  children  they  chance  to  be  fond, 

Have  a  stout  wire  fence  put  all  round  the  pond  I 

One  more  piece  of  advice,  and  I  close  my  appeals-^ 

lhat  is  — if  you  chance  to  be  partial  to  eels, 

1  hen  — Cre^^e  experto —trust  one  who  has  tried, 

Have  them  spitch-cock'd,  —  or  stewed  —  they're  too  oHy  when  fried 


LXXVT. 
EPITHETS. 

•.T^®  /^^^      ^^^^  ^ee^  presented,  together 

with  a  fuU  vocabularj,  hj  which  the  appropriate  rhyme  to 
any  word  may  be  found.  The  use  of  appropriate  epithets  by 
which  anunated  descriptions  may  be  given,  or  the  measure 
ot  the  verse  fiUed  out,  comes  now  to  be  considered.  * 

An  epithet  is  an  adjective,  expressing  some  real  quahty  of 
the  subject  to  which  it  is  applied,  or  an  attributive,  expressmg 
eome  quahty  ascribed  to  it ;  as  a  verdant  lawn,  a  brilliant  ap- 
i?earance,  3.  just  man,  an  accicrafe  description. 

wlS,  rega?dToepkhe'S'''  ^^^^^P^°^'  '^^^^^^  suggestxon. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


283 


Epithets  are  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  compound. 

Simple  epithets  are  single  wordvS,  as,  joyous  youth,  decrepii 
age,  thoughtless  infancy. 

Compound  epithets  consist  of  compound  words,  and  are  fre- 
quently composed  of  nouns  and  other  parts  of  speech,  in  con- 
nexion with  adjectives,  participles,  &c.,  as,  The  meek-eyed 
mom,  Tear-dropping  April,  The  laughter-loving  goddess.  The 
dew-dropping  morn.  In  world-rejoicing  state  it  moves  along,  &c. 

The  judicious  application  of  epithets  constitutes  one  of  the  greatest 
beauties  of  composition;  and  in  poetry,  especially,  the  melody  of  the 
verse,  and  the  animation  of  the  style  is,  in  great  measure,  dependent 
upon  it. 

Figurative  language  [seepage  111)  presents  a  wide  and  extensive  field 
for  the  supply  of  rich  and  expressive  epithets ;  and  the  poet  is  indulged, 
by  his  peculiar  license,  in  the  formation  of  new  and  original  compound 
epithets.    [See  page  \^&.) 

Alliteration,  also,  [see  page  151)  if  not  profusely  applied,  and  ex- 
pressions in  which  the  sound  is  adapted  to  the  sense,  when  introduced 
with  simple  or  compound  epithets,  contribute  in  a  good  degree  to  the 
beauty  and  harmony  of  verse.  The  follomng  couplet,  from  Goldsmith's 
Deserted  Village,  presents  an  exemplification  of  this  remark : 

"  The  white-washed  wall,  the  nicely-sanded  floor, 
The  varnished  dock  that  clicked  behind  the  door." 

[See  Onomatopceia.\ 

Example. 

The  word  anger  is  suggested  for  the  application  of  epithets, 
and  the  following  terms  will  be  found  respectively  applicable 
to  it : 

Violent,  impetuous,  threatening,  menacing,  unbridled,  untamed,  mis- 
taking, boiling,  swelling,  frantic,  raging,  flaming,  burning,  passionate, 
roaring,  secret,  waspish,  impatient,  red-looking,  red-glaring,  inflaming, 
bloody,  blood-spilling,  incensed,  stormy,  scarlet,  blood-dyed,  moody,  chol- 
eric, wrathful,  revengeful,  vengeful,  chafing,  foaming,  hot-headed,  heating, 
sparkling,  rash,  blind,  heady,  head-strong,  disordered,  stera-visaged,  giddy, 
flame-eyed,  ghostly,  distempered,  transporting,  tempestuous,  blustering, 
fierce,  cruel,  truculent,  overseeing,  frothy,  implacable,  pettish,  bitter, 
rough,  wild,  stubborn,  unruly,  litigious,  austere,  dreadful,  peace-destroying 
joy-killing,  soul-troubling,  blasting,  death-dealing,  fury-kindled,  mortal 
hellish,  heaven-rejected. 

Example  2d, 

FOUNTAIN. 

Chrystal,  gushing:,  rustling,  silver,  gently-gliding,  partmg,  pearly,  weep- 
ing, bubbling,  gurgling,  chiding,  clear,  grass-fringed,  moss-fringed,  pebble- 
paved,  verdant,  sacred^  grass-margined,  moss-margined,  trickling,  soft 


284 


AIDS  TO   ENGLISH  COilPOSITIOJT. 


de^v-spnnkled,  fast-flowing,  delicate,  delicious,  clean,  straggling,  dancin* 
vaultmg,  deep-embosomed,  leaping,  murmuring,  muttering,  whisperin", 
prattling,  twaddling,  swelling,  sweet-rolling,  gently-flowing,  rising,  spark- 
ling, flowmg,  frothy,  dew-distilling,  dew-bora,  exhaustless,  inexhaustible, 
never-decreasmg,  never-failing,  heaven-born,  earth-bora,  deep-divulc^ing 
drought-dispellmg,  thirst-allaying,  refreshing,  soul-refreshing,  earth 
retreshmg,  lading,  lavish,  plant-nouiishing. 

Examples  for  Practice. 
Apply  epithets  to  the  following  names : 

Friend,  friendship,  love,  joy,  sorrow,  revenge,  mirth,  justice,  a  forest,  a 
wood,  a  mountain,  billow,  wave,  ripple,  bloom,  blossom,  bud,  banquet,  ad 
versitv,  afl"ection,  afiiietion.  sorrow,  despair,  allurement,  ambition,  anguish, 
appetite,  avarice,  autumn,  beauty,  bee,  beggar,  bird,  bride,  cave,  cloud, 
clown,  cold,  countenance,  critic,  death,  deceit,  dehght,  destrov,  disease, 
discord,  dog,  di-eam,  eagle,  earth,  eye,  en^-v,  eloquence,  countenance,  fear, 
Are,  farmament,  flame,  flatter,  flower,  gift,  glory,  gold,  grove,  grief  hau-, 
hand,  honor,  hour,  hope,  jealousy,  ignorance,  innocence,  lay.  law,  liberty, 
light,  maid,  majesty,  mahce,  mead,  meadow,  minute,  monarch,  mist,  miil- 
titude,  night,  pain,  peace,  pleasure,  poetrv,  povertv.  pride,  prosperitv,  pro- 
vidence, rage,  rebeUion,  remorse,  rock,  sea,  shore, 'skin,  sleep,  snake,' snow, 
stream,  sun,  swam,  tail,  tear,  tempest,  temple,  throne,  thunder,  time, 
tongue,  tree,  vale,  vengeance,  verse,  ^-ine,  want,  water,  war,  ^vine,  woman, 
wit,  wind,  wing,  winter,  wood,  woe,  year,  youth,  zeal. 


Lxxvn. 

LYEIC  POETRY. 

Lyric  poetry  literally  implies  that  kind  cf  poetry  wliich  is 
Avritten  to  accompany  the  lyre,  or  other  musical  instrument 
The  versification  may  either  be  regular,  or  united  in  fanciful 
combinations,  in  correspondence  with  the  strain  for  which  it  is 
composed. 

Example  1st. 

THE  TTIXGED  WOESHIPPEPwS. 
Addressed  to  tit-o  Sivalhivs  that  fleiu  into  CJmrch  during  Divine  Set-vioe 

Gay,  guiltless  pair, 
^Yhat  seek  ye  fi-om  the  fields  of  heaven  ? 

Ye  have  no  need  of  prayer. 
Ye  hav  ?  no  sins  to  be  forgiven. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 


Why  perch  ye  here, 
Where  mortals  to  their  Maker  bend  ? 

Can  your  pure  spirits  fear 
The  God  you  never  could  offend  1 

Ye  never  knew 
The  crimes  for  which  we  come  to  weep ; 

Penance  is  not  for  you, 
Blessed  wanderers  of  the  upper  deep. 

To  you 't  is  given 
To  make  sweet  nature's  untaught  lays  j 

Beneath  the  arch  of  heaven 
To  chirp  away  a  life  of  praise. 

Then  spread  each  wing, 
Tar,  far  above,  o'er  lakes  and  lands, 

And  join  the  choirs  that  sing 
In  yon  blue  dome  not  reared  mth  hands. 

Or,  if  ye  stay, 
To  note  the  consecrated  hour, 

Teach  me  the  airy  way, 
And  let  me  try  your  envied  power. 

Above  the  crowd, 
On  upward  wings  could  I  but  fly, 

I 'd  bathe  in  yon  bright  cloud, 
And  seek  the  stars  that  gem  the  sky. 

'T  were  heaven  indeed 
Through  fields  of  trackless  light  to  soar, 

On  nature's  charms  to  feed, 
And  nature's  owa.  great  God  adore. 

Example  2  c?. 

LINES  ADDRESSED  TO  LADY  BTROK. 

There  is  a  mystic  thread  of  life 

So  dearly  wreathed  with  mine  alone. 

That  destiny's  relentless  knife 
At  once  must  sever  both  or  none. 

There  is  a  form  on  which  these  eyes 
Have  often  gazed  with  fond  delight ; 

By  day  that  form  their  joy  supplies, 
"And  dreams  restore  it  through  the  night. 

There  is  a  voice  whose  tones  inspire 

Such  thrills  of  rapture  through  my  breast  j 

I  would  not  hear  a  seraph  choir, 
Unless  that  voice  could  join  the  rest 


286 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


There  is  a  face  whose  blushes  tell 

Affection's  tale  upon  the  cheek ; 
But,  pallid  at  one  fond  farewell, 

Proclaims  more  love  than  words  can  speak. 

There  is  a  lip  which  mine  has  pressed, 

And  none  had  ever  pressed  before ; 
It  vowed  to  make  me  sweetly  blessed, 

And  mine,  —  mine  only,  pressed  it  more. 

There  is  a  bosom,  —  all  my  own,  — 

Hath  pillowed  oft  this  aching  head ; 
A  mouth  which  smiles  on  me  alone, 

An  eye  whose  tears  with  mine  are  shed. 

There  are  two  hearts  whose  movements  thrill 

In  unison  so  closely  sweet ! 
That,  pulse  to  pulse,  responsive  still, 

That  both  must  heave,  —  or  cease  to  beat. 

There  are  two  souls  whose  equal  flow 

In  gentle  streams  so  calmly  run. 
That  when  they  part —  they  part !  —  ah,  no  ! 

They  cannot  part,-^ —  those  souls  are  one. 

The  highest  of  the  modern  Ijric  compositions  is  the  Ode 
The  word  ode  is  from  the  Greek,  and  is  generally  translated 
a  song,  but  it  is  not  a  song,  as  we  use  the  term  in  our  lan- 
guage. The  ode  was  the  result  of  strong  excitement,  a  poet- 
ical attempt  to  fill  the  hearts  of  the  auditors  with  feelings  of 
the  sublime.  Odes  that  were  sung  in  honor  of  the  gods  were 
termed  Hymns,  from  a  Greek  word  hymneo,  which  signifies 
to  celebrate.  The  name  is  now  applied  to  those  sacred  songs 
that  are  sung  in  churches.  The  Hebrew  hymns  which  bear 
the  name  of  King  David  are  termed  Psalms,  from  the  Greek 
word  psallo,  which  signifies  to  sing. 

The  Greek  Ode,  when  complete,  was  composed  of  three 
parts,  the  Strophe,  the  Antistrope,  and  the  Epode.  The  two 
former  terms  indicated  the  turnings  of  the  priests  round  and 
about  the  altar.  The  Epode  was  the  end  of  the  song,  and  was 
repeated  standing  still,  before  the  altar. 

Paeans  were  songs  of  triumph  sung  m  procession  in  honor 
of  Apollo,  on  occasions  of  a  victory,  &c.,  or  to  the  other  gods 
as  thanksgivings  for  the  cessation  or  cure  of  an  evil.  The 
word  is  derived  from  a  word  signifying  to  heal  or  cure. 

For  examples  of  the  English  ode,  the  student  is  referred  to 
the  well-known  pieces,  "  Alexander's  Feast,"  by  Dryden,  and 
^he  "  Ode  on  the  Passions,"  by  ColHns. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


A  Ballad  is  a  rhyming  record  of  some  adventure  or  tran- 
saction which  is  amusing  or  interesting  to  the  populace,  and 
written  in  easy  and  uniform  verse,  so  that  it  may  easily  be 
sung  by  those  who  have  little  acquaintance  with  music. 

A  Sonnet  is  a  species  of  poetical  composition,  consisting  of 
fourteen  lines  or  verses  of  equal  length.  It  properly  consists 
of  fourteen  iambic  verses,  of  eleven  syllables,  and  is  divided 
into  two  chief  parts ;  —  the  fif st  consists  of  two  divisions,  each 
of  four  lines,  called  quatrains;  the  second  of  two  divisions 
of  three  lines  each,  called  terzines.  The  rhymes  in  these 
parts  respectively  were  managed  according  to  regular  rules. 
But  these  rules  have  been  seldom  regarded  in  modern  com- 
positions. The  sonnet  generally  contains  one  principal  idea, 
pursued  through  the  various  antitheses  of  the  different  strophes, 
and  adorned  with  the  charm  of  rhyme. 

ExampU  of  the  Sonnet. 

SONNET   TO    ONE  BELOYED. 

Deep  in  my  heart  thy  cherished  secret  lies 

Deep  as  a  pearl  on  ocean's  soundless  floor, 

Where  the  bold  diver  never  can  explore 
The  realms  o'er  which  the  mighty  billows  rise. 
It  rests  far  hidden  from  aU  mortal  eyes, 

Not  e'en  discovered  when  the  piercing  light 
Of  mom  illumines  the  uncurtained  skies, 

And  fills  with  sunshine  the  dark  vaults  of  night. 
Repose  in  me  thy  heart's  most  sacred  trust, 

And  nothing  shall  betray  it ;  I  will  bend 
This  human  fabric  to  its  native  dust, 

But  nothing  from  me  shall  that  secret  rend, 
Which  to  my  soul  is  brighter,  dearer  far, 
Than  any  lustre  of  sun,  moon,  or  star. 

A  Cantata  is  a  composition  or  song  intermixed  with  recita* 
tives  and  airs,  chiefly  intended  for  a  single  voice. 

A  Canzonet  is  a  short  song  in  one,  two,  or  three  parts.* 

Example, 

BLACK  EYES  AND  BLUE. 

Black  eyes  most  dazzle  in  a  hall ; 
Blue  eyes  most  please  at  evening  fall ; 
The  black  a  conquest  soonest  gain  5 
The  blue  a  conquest  most  retain ; 


*  In  mueical  compositions,  a  song  consisting  of  two  parts  is  called  a  Dfrrf, 
if  in  three  parts,  a  Trio,  if  in  four,  a  Qimrtette,  &c. 


288  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOX. 

The  black  bespeaks  a  lively  heart, 
Whose  soft  emotions  soon  depart: 
The  blue  a  steadier  flame  betray, 
That  burns  and  lives  beyond  a  day: 
The  black  may  features  best  disclose : 
In  blue  may  feelings  all  repose. 
Then  let  each  reign  without  control, 
The  black  all  mind,  — the  blue  aU  soul! 

A  Logogriph  is  a  kind  of  riddle. 

Charades  (which  are  frequently  in  verse)  are  compositiona, 
m  which  the  subject  must  be  a  word  of  two  sjUables,  each 
forming  a  distmct  word,  and  these  syUables  are  to  be  con- 
togetW  ^  ^""'Smatical  description,  first  separately  and  then 

Madrigals  are  short  lyric  poems  adapted  to  express  in- 
genious and  pleasmg  thoughts,  commonly  on  amatory  subjects, 
and  containmg  not  less  than  four,  nor  more  than  sixteen  verses 
ot  eleven  syUables,  with  shorter  verses  interspersed,  or  of 
verses  of  eight  syllables  irregularly  rhymed.  The  madrigal 
IS  not  confined  to  the  regularity  of  the  sonnet,  but  contaLs 
expressed  delicate,  though  simple  thought,  suitably 

Example  oftU  Madrigal. 

TO  A  LADY  OF  THE  COUNTY  OF  LANCASTER,  WITH  A  WHITE  ROSE. 

If  this  fan-  rose  offend  thy  sight, 

It  in  thy  bosom  wear ; 
•T  will  blush  to  find  itself  less  white, 

And  turn  Lancastrian  there. 

The  Rondeau  or  rondo,  roundo,  roundel  or  roundelay,  all 
mean  precisely  tfhe  same  thing.  It  commonly  consists  of 
thirteen  hues  or  verses,  of  which  eight  have  one  rhyme,  and 
five  another.  It  is  divided  into  three  couplets,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  second  and  third,  the  beginning  of  the  rondeau  is 
repeate(^il  possible,  m  an  equivocal  or  punning  sense. 

The  Epigram  is  a  short  poem,  treating  only  of  one  thin^, 
and  ending  with  some  Hvely,  ingenious,  and  natural  thoueht, 
rendered  mteresting  by  being  unexpected.  Conciseness  is 
one  ot  the  pnncipal  characteristics  of  the  epigram.  Its  point 
otten  rests  on  a  witticism  or  verbal  pun ;  but  the  higher  species 
ot  tho  epigram  should  be  marked  by  fineness  and  deHcacy, 
rather  than  by  smartness  or  repartee^ 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  289 


Example. 

^TBITTKN  OK  A  GLASS  WITH  A  DIAMOND  PENCIL  BELONGING  TO  LORD  STANHOM. 

Accept  a  miracle  in  place  of  wit ;  — 

See  two  dull  lines  by  Stanhope's  pencil  writ. 

An  Impromptu  is  an  extemporaneous  composition,  that  is, 
one  made  at  the  moment,  or  without  previous  study. 

An  Acrostic  is  a  composition  in  verse,  in  which  the  initial 
letters  of  each  line,  taken  in  order  from  the  top  to  the  bottom, 
make  up  a  word  or  phrase,  generally  a  person's  name,  or  a 
motto 

Example  of  the  Acrostic. 

Friendship,  thou  'rt  false !  I  hate  thy  flattering  smile  I 

R  etum  to  me  those  years  I  spent  in  vain. 

In  early  youth  the  victim  of  thy  guile, 

E  ach  joy  took  wing  ne'er  to  return  again,  —  * 

N  e'er  to  return ;  for,  chilled  by  hopes  deceived, 

D  ully  the  slow  paced  hours  now  move  along; 

S  o  changed  the  time,  when,  thoughtless,  I  believed 

H  er  honeyed  words,  and  heard  her  syren  song. 

I  f  e'er,  as  me,  she  lure  some  youth  to  stray, 

P  erhaps,  before  too  late,  he  'U  listen  to  my  lay. 

An  Epithalamium  is  a  nuptial  song  or  poem,  in  praise  ct 
the  bride  and  bridegroom,  and  praying  for  their  prosperity.* 


I  Lxxvin. 

PASTORAL  Am>  ELEGIAC  POETRY. 

Pastorals  or  bucolics  are  the  narratives,  songs,  and  dramas, 
which  are  supposed  to  have  been  recited,  sung,  or  acted  by 
shepherds. 

The  ancient  pastorals  were  either  dialogues  or  monologues. 
A  monologue  is  a  poetical  piece,  where  there  is  only  a  smgle 
speaker. 


*  The  forty  fifth  Psalm  is  an  epithalamium  to  Christ  and  the  Church* 
25 


290 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


An  Idyl,  Idillion  or  Idyllium  is  a  short  pastoral  of  the  naiv 

rative  or  descriptive  kind. 

An  Eclogue  is  the  conversation  of  shepherds.  The  word 
literally  means  a  select  piece,  and  the  art  of  the  poet  lies 
in  selecting  the  beauties  without  the  grossness  of  rural  life. 
The  eclogue  differs  from  the  idyl,  in  being  appropriated  to 
pieces  in  which  shepherds  themselves  are  introduced. 

ELEGY  A^T>  EPITAPH. 

An  Elegy  is  a  poem  or  a  song  expressive  of  sorrow  and 
lamentation 

An  Epitaph  is,  literally,  an  inscription  on  a  tomb.  When 
written  in  verse,  and  expressive  of  the  sorrow  of  the  survivors, 
epitaphs  are  short  elegies.* 


*  The  folloTving  remarks  on  the  subject  of  epitaphs,  were  originally  pre 
sented  by  a  young  friend,  as  a  college  exercise.  They  appear  to  be  so  much 
to  the  purpose,  that  they  are  presented  entire  :  — 

"  '  JTature  and  Nature's  laws  lay  hid  in  nigM 
God  said,  Let  >''ewton  be  !  and  all  was  light. " 

"  One  common  fault  in  epitaphs  is  their  too  great  length.  Not  being  easily 
read  upon  stone,  few  ti-ouble  themselves  to  peruse  tbem,  if  they  are  long; 
and  in  a  chui-chyai-d  so  many  solicit  our  attention,  that  we  prefer  to  examine 
those  which  are  concise,  rather  than  spend  our  time  on  a  few  long  ones. 
Every  one,  too,  soon  discovers,  that  those  which  cover  the  stones  on  which 
they  "are  inscribed,  are,  for  the  most  p*rt,  feebly  expressed,  and  hardly 
recompense  one  for  the  trouble  of  deciphering  them;  while  a  concise  in- 
scription immediately  attracts  notice,  and  is  generally  found  to  be  pointed. 
We  can  frequently  perceive  the  description  of  character  to  be  untme,  be- 
cause it  is  coldly  worded,  and  expressed  in  veiy  general  terms  ;  in  short,  a 
character  which  would  apply  to  one  man  as  well  as  another,  and  such  as  is 
frequently  given  to  a  person"^  whom  we  care  nothing  about.  Such  epitaphs 
I  consider  faulty.  After  the  death  of  an  acquaintance,  all  our  feelings  of 
dishke,  caused  by  his  presence,  are  dispelled;  all  the  animosity,  growing  out 
of  the  clashing  of  our  interests  with  his,  vanishes  with  the  man ;  and,  per 
haps,  being  in  some  degi-ee  reproved  by  otu-  consciences  for  our  imcharitable 
feelings  dm-ing  his  life,  we  endeavor  to  make  amends  by  inscribing  to  his 
memory  a  eulog}',  which,  if  he  still  lived,  we  should  pronotlnce  undeserved 
flattery,  if  spoken  by  others,  and  which  would  never  have  proceeded  from 
om-  own  lips,  except  in  irony.  In  such  a  case,  an  epitaph  usually  begins 
by  gi'avely  telling  the  reader  that  we  are  all  mortal,  and  ends  by  commend 
iag'the  soul  of  the  defunct  to  heaven ! 

"  But,  though  epitaphs  give  us,  generally,  exaggerated  characters,  yet  I 
would  not  have  it  otherwise.  Our  churchyai'ds  should  be  schools  of  moral- 
ity and  religion.  Every  thing  we  see  there,  of  course,  reminds  us  of  death; 
and  it  would  appear  to  us  sacrilege,  if  we  should  behold  any  record  of  vice. 
Since  everywhere  we  find  \-irtue  ascribed  to  the  tenants  of  the  place,  their 
death,  and'death  in  general,  v,-ill  not  be  to  its  so  tenible  and  gloomy  a  sub- 
ject of  reflection;  yet  will  produce  such  a  serious  turn  of  mind,  as  will  lead 
to  religious  meditation,  which  always  has  the  effect  of  calmir.^  the  passions. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


291 


Example. 

EI.EGT  WRITTEN  IN  A  COUNTRY  CHURCHYARD. 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day  5 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea ; 

The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight, 

And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds  5 
Save  where  the  beetle  wheels  his  droning  flight, 

And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds. 

Save  that,  from  yonder  ivy-mantled  tower, 
The  moping  owl  does  to  the  moon  complain 

Of  such  as,  wandering  near  her  secret  bower, 
Molest  her  ancient  solitary  reign. 


and  facilitates,  in  a  great  degree,  our  conquest  over  them,  and  the  infro- 
quency  of  which  is  the  cause  of  most  of  our  transgressions. 

"  Eulogizing  epitaphs  give  us  a  more  exalted  idea  of  the  power  of  religion, 
to  which  they  chiefly  have  reference ;  and  therefore  have,  in  some  measure, 
the  force  of  examples.  When  a  person  has  not  been  known  to  the  world  as 
a  philosopher  and  a  scholar,  or  in  any  other  way  a  distinguished  man,  it  is 
sufficient  that  his  epitaph  should  be  calculated  to  excite  tender  and  serious 
feeUngs.  In  such  a  case,  elegiac  poetry  should  be  congenial  to  those  feel 
ings.  This,  Stewart  says,  may  b^  effected  by  the  smoothness  of  the  verse, 
and  the  apparently  easy  recun-ence  of  the  rhymes.  Blank  verse  would  be 
peculiarly  inappropriate  to  this  species  of  poetical  composition.  When,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  person  has  been  conspicuous,  as  a  philosopher,  for  instance, 
his  epitaph  should  convey  a  different  lesson ;  by  a  description  of  his  discove- 
ries, it  should  remind  us  of  what  is  due  from  us  to  science  and  our  fello-w- 
creatures,  besides  suggesting  the  reflection  that  the  greatest  men  must  perish. 

"  Considering  this  quality  desirable  in  an  epitaph  on  a  philosopher,  we 
should  praise  an  epitaph  on  Newton,  which  represented  him  as  the  greatest 
philosopher  the  world  has  ever  seen,  and  is  expressive  also  of  the  gratitude 
which  is  due  to  him,  for  the  improvement  he  has  made  in  the  condition  of 
the  human  race  by  his  discoveries.  I  think  that  the  above  epitaph,  by  Pope, 
conveys  all  this ;  for  the  observation,  that  '  Kature  and  nature's  laws  lay  hid 
in  night,'  implies  that  information  on  the  subject  of  those  laws  would  be 
beneficial  to  mankind,  inasmuch  as  an  idea  of  disadvantage  is  associated 
with  the  word  '  night ;'  and  the  second  line  expresses  that  Newton  alone 
made  the  whole  subject  clear  to  our  minds ;  an  exaggerated  expression,  but 
one  that  certainly  describes  an  exalted  genius.  I  do  not  think,  that  the 
epitaph  redounds  much  to  the  honor  of  Pope,  except  for  the  felicity  of  the 
expression ;  for  the  idea  would  occur  to  many  minds.  We  should  not,  in 
judging  of  this  couplet,  consider  it  alone,  for,  united  with  the  rest  of  the 
epitaph,  of  which  it  is  but  a  part,  the  whole  together  deserves  much  greater 
Draise  than  is  due  to  either  part  taken  separately.  A  complete  eulogy  on 
Newton  should  not  be  expected  in  the  inscription  on  his  tomb,  and  therefore 
we  should  not  consider  its  merits  in  that  character.  I  think  that  the  con- 
ciseness of  the  epitaph,  which  is  a  great  recommendation,  will  compensate 
and  account  for  whatever  defect  it  may  have  iu  giving  us  a  just  and  exact 
idea  of  NewtouN" 


292 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Beneath  those  rugged  elms,  that  yew-tree's  shade. 

Where  heaves  the  turf  in  many  a  mouldering  heap, 
Each  in  his  narrow  cell  for  ever  laid, 

The  rude  forefathers  of  the  hamlet  sleep. 

The  breezy  call  of  incense-breathing  mom. 

The  swallow  twittering  from  the  straw-built  shed, 

The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn, 
No  more  sh2.ll  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed. 

For  them  no  more  the  blazing  hearth  shall  bum, 
Nor  busy  housewife  ply  her  evening  care ; 

No  children  run  to  Usp  their  sire's  return. 
Or  climb  his  knees  the  envied  kiss  to  share. 

Oft  did  the  harvest  to  their  sickle  yield ; 

Their  furrow  oft  the  stubborn  glebe  has  broke ; 
How  jocund  did  they  drive  their  team  afield  ! 

How  bowed  the  woods  beneath  their  sturdy  stroke. 

Let  not  Ambition  mock  their  useful  toil, 

Their  homely  joys  and  destiny  obscure  ; 
Nor  Grandeur  hear,  with  a  disdainful  smile, 
.  The  short  and  simple  annals  of  the  pooi*. 

The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  power. 

And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave, 
Await,  alike,  the  inevitable  hour  ;  — 

The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave. 

Nor  you,  ye  proud,  impute  to  these  the  fault, 
If  memory  o'er  their  tomb  no  trophies  raise, 

Where,  through  the  long-drawn  aisle  and  fretted  yao]^ 
The  pealing  anthem  swells  the  note  of  praise. 

Can  storied  urn,  or  animated  bust. 
Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath  ? 

Can  Honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust, 
Or  Flattery  soothe  the  dull  cold  ear  of  death  ? 

Perhaps,  in  this  neglected  spot,  is  laid 

Some  heart,  once  pregnant  with  celestial  fire ; 

Hands,  that  the  rod  of  empire  might  have  swayed, 
Or  waked  to  ecstasy  the  living  lyre : 

But  Knowledge  to  their  eyes  her  ample  page, 
Rich  with  the  spoils  of  time,  did  ne'er  unroll ; 

Chill  Penury  repressed  their  noble  rage. 
And  froze  the  genial  current  of  the  soul. 

Full  many  a  gem,  of  purest  ray  serene, 

The  dark,  unfathomed  caves  of  ocean  bear; 

Full  many  a  flower  is  bom  to  blush  unseen, 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Some  village  Hampden,  that,  with  dauntless  toeast, 

The  little  tyrant  of  his  fields  withstood ; 
Some  mute,  inglorious  Milton  here  may  rest ; 

Some  Cromwell,  guiltless  of  his  country's  blood. 

The  applause  of  listening  senates  to  command, 

The  threats  of  pain  and  ruin  to  despise, 
To  scatter  plenty  o'er  a  smiling  land, 

And  read  their  history  in  a  nation's  eyes, 

Their  lot  forbade :  nor  circumscribed  alone. 

Their  growing  virtues,  but  their  crimes  confined  j— 

Forbade  to  wade  through  slaughter  to  a  throne. 
And  shut  th*^  gates  of  mercy  on  mankind  5 

The  struggling  pangs  of  conscious  Truth  to  hide, 
To  quench  the  blushes  of  ingenuous  Shame ; 

Or  heap  the  shrine  of  Luxury  and  Pride 
With  ince?*se  kindled  at  the  muse's  flame. 

Tar  from  the  maddening  crowd's  ignoble  strife. 
Their  sober  wishes  never  learnt  to  stray : 

Along  the  cool,  sequestered  vale  of  life 
They  kepi  the  noiseless  tenor  of  their  way. 

Yet  even  these  bones  from  insult  to  protect, 

Some  frail  memorial,  still  erected  nigh, 
With  uncouth  rhymes  and  shapeless  sculpture  decked, 

Implores  the  passing  tribute  of  a  sigh. 

Their  names,  their  years,  spelled  by  the  unlettered  Mnfi^ 

The  place  of  fame  and  elegy  supply ; 
And  many  a  holy  text  around  she  strews. 

That  teach  the  rustic  moralist  to  die. 

Tor  who,  to  dumb  forgetfulness  a  prey. 

This  pleasing,  anxious  being  e'er  resigned ; — 

Left  the  warm  precincts  of  the  cheerful  day, — 
Nor  cast  one  longing,  lingeiTug  look  behind  ? 

On  some  fond  breast  the  parting  soul  relies ; 

Some  pious  drops  the  closing  eye  requires ; 
Even  from  the  tomb  the  voice  of  Nature  cries  • 

Even  in  our  ashes  live  their  wonted  fires. 

For  thee,  who,  mindful  of  the  unhonored  dead. 

Dost  in  these  lines  their  artless  tale  relate 
If,  chance,  by  lonely  contemplation  led. 

Some  kindred  spirit  shall  inquire  thy  fate. 

Haply,  some  hoary-headed  swain  may  say, 
"  Oft  have  we  seen  him,  at  the  peep  of  dawn, 

Brushing,  with  hasty  steps,  the  dews  away. 
To  meet  the  sun  upon  the  upland  lawn. 

25* 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


"  There,  at  the  foot  of  yonder  nodding  beech 
That  Avreathes  its  old  fantastic  roo^s  so  high, 

His  listless  length  at  noontide  would  he  stretch, 
And  pore  upon  the  brook  that  babbles  by. 

"  Hard  by  yon  wood,  now  smiling,  as  in  scorn, 
Muttering  his  wayward  fancies,  he  would  rove , 

Now  drooping,  woful  wan,  like  one  forlorn. 

Or  crazed  with  care,  or  crossed  with  hopeless  love. 

**  One  morn  I  missed  him  on  the  accustomed  hill, 
Along  the  heath,  and  near  his  favorite  tree ; 

Another  came  ;  nor  yet  beside  the  rill, 
Nor  up  the  lawn,  nor  at  the  wood  was  he : 

*'  The  next  with  dirges  due,  in  sad  array, 

Slow  through  the  church-way  path  we  saw  him  borne. 
Approach  and  read,  (for  thou  canst  read,)  the  lay, 

Graved  on  the  stone  beneath  yon  aged*  thorn." 

EPITAPH. 

Eere  rests  his  head  upon  the  lap  of  earth, 
A  youth,  to  fortune  and  to  fame  unknown : 

Fair  Science  froAvned  not  on  his  humble  birth, 
And  Melancholy  marked  him  for  her  own. ' 

Large  was  his  bounty,  and  his  soul  sincere  ; 

Heaven  did  a  recompense  as  largely  send:  

He  gave  to  misery  all  he  had,  —  a  tear ; 

He  gained  from  Heaven  —  'twas  aU  he  wished  —  a  friend. 

No  farther  seek  his  merits  to  disclose, 
-N'or  draw  his  frailties  from  their  dread  abode,— 

(There  they,  alike,  in  trembling  hope  repose,) 
The  bosom  of  his  Father  and  his  God. 


LXXIX. 

OF  THE  HIGHER  SPECffiS  OF  POETRY. 

The  Mgher  species  of  poetry  embraces  the  three  following 
divisions,  namely : 

1.  Tales  and  Romances. 

2.  Epic  and  Dramatic  Poetry. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


295 


3.  Didactic  and  Descriptive  Poetry.* 

A  Tale  is,  literally,  any  thing  tliat  is  told,  and  may  relate 
eitlier  real  or  fictitious  events.  When  the  events  related  in 
a  tale  are  believed  really  to  have  happened,  the  tale  is  termed 
history. 

A  Romance  is  a  tale  of  interesting,  or  wonderful  adven- 
tures ;  and  has  its  name  from  those  that  were  recited  by  the 
Troubadours,  (that  is,  inventors,)  or  wandering  minstrels,  of 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries. 

The  tales  of  the  Troubadours  related  principally  to  the  military 
achievements  of  the  crusading  Imights,  their  gaUantry,  and  fideHty. 
They  were  delivered  in  a  corrupted  Latin  dialect,  called  Provent^al,  or 
Provincial,  by  the  inhabitants  of  Eome,  and  Romanzo,  or  Komish,  by  the 
Gothic  nations,  and  hence  the  tale  itself  was  called  a  Romance.  Some  of 
them  were  prose,  some  in  verse,  and  some  in  a  miscellaneous  union  of 
prose  narrative  and  song.  But  in  neither  form  were  they  in  all  cases 
worthy  of  the  name  of  poems.  . 

Novels,  Cliterally,  something  new,)  are  the  adventures  ot  imagmary 
persons,  in  which  supernatural  beings  are  not  introduced.  The  novel  is 
generally  also  in  prose.  Whenever  a  power  is  introduced  superior  to 
that  of  mortals,  the  novel  is  properly  a  romance.  "  The  Epicurean,"  by 
Moore,  is  an  example  of  this  kind,  which,  although  in  the  form  of  prose, 
is  highly  poetical  in  its  character.  It  is  full  of  imaginative  power,  and 
abounds  in  figures  of  the  most  beautiful  kind,  dressed  in  the  most  glow- 
ing colors.  . 

That  power,  which  the  poet  introduces,  whatever  it  may  be,  to  accom- 
plish what  mere  human  agency  cannot  effect,  is  called  the  machmei'y  of 
the  poem. 

An  Epic  poem  is  a  poetical,  romantic  tale,  embracing  many 
personages  and  many  incidents.  One  general  and  important 
design  must  be  apparent  in  its  construction,  to  which  every 
separate  actor  and  action  must  be  subservient.  The  accounts 
of  these  subordinate  actions  are  called  episodes,  and  should 
not  be  extended  to  a  great  length. 

Examples  of  epic  poems  may  be  seen  in  the  "  Iliad,"  and  "  Odyssey," 
of  Homer,  (translated  by  Pope,)  the  "^neid,"  of  Vngil,  (translated  by 
Dryden,)  the  "Pharsalia,"  of  Lucan,  (translated by  Rowe,)  and  the  "Par- 
adise Lost"  of  Milton.  Epic  poems  are  rare  productions,  and  scarcely 
any  nation  can  boast  of  more  than  one. 

The  word  epic  literally  means  nothing  more  than  a  tale.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  tale  concerning  a  hero  or  heroes,  and  hence  epic  poetry  is  also 


*  See  the  piece  entitled  "  The  Empire  of  Poetry,"  by  FonteneUe,  page 
133,  under  the  head  Allegory. 


296  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

l^lfj''''''  ^^""^^^^     Epopoeia,  is  merely  a  learned  name  fof 

A  Drama  is  a  poem  of  tlie  epic  kind,  but  so  compressed 
and  adapted,  that  the  whole  tale,  instead  of  requiring  to  be 
read  or  recited  at  intervals,  by  an  individual,  may  be  exhib 
ited  as  actually  passing  before  our  eyes.  Every  actor  in  the 
poem  has  his  representative  on  the  stage,  who  speaks  the  lan- 
guage of  the  poet,  as  if  it  were  his  own;  and  every  action  is 
literally  performed  or  imitated,  as  if  it  were  of  natural  oc- 
currence. 

m.^n^c^^^'T^.*'''  writer  Shakspeare  stands  unrivalled,  among  English 
hTs  superic^'r     ""^^  questioned,  whether  any  nation  has  prodlced 

Inthe  constraction  ofaDrama,rules  have  been  laid  down  by  critics 
!oH^r"  fT^      ""^'f  r^^V.""  they  Te  calkd  of 

shS  t  T^l  of  place.  Unity  of  action  requires,  that  a  single  object 
should  be  kept  m  view.  No  underplot,  or  secondary  action  is  Slowable 
unless  It  tend  to  advance  the  prominent  purpose.  Unity  of  time  requires 
that  the  events  should  be  hmited  to  a  short  period ;  seldom  if  ever^more 
than  a  single  day.  Umty  of  place  requires  the  confinement  of  the  actions 
represented  within  narrow  geographical  limits.  Another  rule  of  drarnatb 
cnticismis  termed  poetical  justice ;  by  which  it  is  understood,  that  the 
personages  shal  be  rewarded  or  punished,  according  to  theh  respect  vl 
de  ert.  A  regular  drama  is  an  historical  picture,  in  which  we  p?rce  ve 
Sgttrw\tr^^^^  every  portion  of  the  composition,  as'harmo' 

Dramatic  compositions  are  of  two  kinds,  Tragedy  and  Comedy 
Tragedy  is  designed  to  fill  the  mind  of  the  spectators  with  pS^tli 
terror;  comedy  to  represent  some  amusing  and  connected  tale.  The 
muse  of  tragedy,  therefore,  deals  in  desolatiSn  and  death, -that  of  com! 
edyis  surrounded  by  the  humorous,  the  ^vitty,  and  th^  gay.  It  i?To 
oX?if  f^'7'v^f^\^""\^?^  poetical  embellishment,  af f  t  it  theS 
S    nr  "^^^  -Accordingly,  it  is,  with  few  excep- 

wSyt  pmse.^'''         "^^^""""'^  while  comedV  is  now  written 

A  Prologue  is  a  short  poem,  designed  as  an  introduction  to 
a  discourse  or  performance,  chiefly  the  discourse  or  poem 
spoken  before  a  dramatic  performance  or  play  begins. 

An  Epilogue  is  a  speech,  or  short  poem,  addressed  to  the 
spectators  by  one  of  the  actors,  after  the  conclusion  of  a  dra- 
niatic  performance.  Sometimes  it  contains  a  recapitulation 
ot  the  chief  incidents  of  the  play. 

Farce  is  the  caricature  of  comedy,  and  is  restrained  by  no 
lavr,  not  even  those  of  probability  and  nature.  Its  object  is  to 
excite  mirth  and  uproarous  laughter.    Eut,  in  some  of  ita 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  297 


forms,  sucli  as  personal  satire,  occasional  grossness,  and  vul- 
garity, it  has  rendered  itself  so  obnoxious  to  reprobation,  that 
the  very  name  is  an  abomination.    It  is  commonly  in  prose. 

Those  compositions  in  which  the  language  is  so  little^  in 
unison  with  the  subject  as  to  impress  the  mind  with  a  feeling 
of  the  ridiculous,  are  called  Burlesques. 

The  Burletta  is  a  species  of  composition  in  which  persons 
and  actions  of  no  value  are  made  to  assume  an  air  of  impor- 
tance. Or,  it  is  that  by  which  things  of  real  consequence  are 
degraded,  so  as  to  seem  objects  of  derision. 

Parodies,  Travesties,  and  Mock  Heroics  are  ludicrous  imi- 
tations of  serious  subjects.    They  belong  to  the  burlesque.* 


*  As  a  happy  illustration  of  burlesque  writing  in  several  different  styles, 
the  following  are  presented  from  Bentley's  Miscellany,  with  the  facetious 
introduction  with  which  they  are  prefaced : 

"  But  another  class  of  pei'sons  claims  our  attention.  We  mean  those  who 
are,  for  some  cause  or  other,  constantly  called  upon  to  write  verses.  Now, 
many  of  those,  when  suddenly  required  to  make  a  song  to  a  given  tune,  to 
scribble  a  ci.orus  for  the  end  of  a  farce,  or  to  jot  down  an  impromptu  on  tb** 
blue  leaf  of  an  album,  suddenly  find  themselves  at  a  nonplus,  —  not  because 
they  are  not  masters  of  rhyme  and  metre,  but  simply  because  they  cannot 
get  a  subject.  We  propose  to  show,  that,  far  from  this  want  being  a  just, 
cause  for  embarrassment,  it  is  absolutely  impossible  not  to  find  a  subject 
The  first  thing  that  catches  the  eye,  or  comes  into  the  head,  will  do,  and 
may  be  treated  in  every  manner.  In  this  age,  although  a  chosen  few  can 
fill  the  post  of  fiddler,  opera-dancer,  juggler,  or  clown  to  the  ring,  these  oc- 
cupations requiring  innate  genius,  he  who  cannot  become  a  poet  is  a  very 
poor  creatu/e.  But,  to  our  task.  We  take  the  Dodo,  that  ugly  bird,  which 
every  child  knows  from  its  picture  in  the  books  on  natural  history,  as  a 
subject  that  seems  of  all  others  the  least  promising,  and  we  shall  show  our 
readers  how  artistically  we  can  manage  it  in  all  sorts  of  styles. 

I.  The  Descriptive.  —  For  this  we  must  go  to  our  encyclopedias,  cram 
for  the  occasion,  and  attentively  observe  the  picture.  '  Our  Rees  '  tells  us 
that  the  Latin  name  for  the  bird  is  '  Didus,'  that  the  Dutch  are  said  to  have 
found  it  in  the  Mauritius,  and  called  it  '  Dodaerts ; '  while  the  French 
termed  it  '  Cygne  a  Capuchon  ; '  and  the  Portuguese,  '  Dodo.'  Its  exist 
ence,  it  seems,  has  been  doubted,  and  at  all  events  it  is  now  supposed  to  be 
extinct. 

In  the  island  of  Mauritius  once  a  sturdy  Dutchman  found 
Such  a  curious  bird  as  ne'er  before  was  seen  to  tread  the  ground ; 
Straight  he  called  it '  Dodaerts ; '  when  a  Frenchman  gazed  upon 
Its  hood  of  down,  and  said  it  was  a  '  Cygne  a  Capuchon.' 

French  and  Dutch  might  be  content  with  making  sorry  names  like  these, 
But  they  would  not  satisfy  the  proud  and  high-souled  Portuguese ; 
He  proclaimed  the  bird  a  '  Dodo.'    *  Dodo '  now  each  infant  cries. 
Pedants,  they  may  call  it '  Didus ; '  but  such  pedants  we  despise. 

*T  was  a  mighty  bird ;  those  short,  strong  legs  were  never  known  to  fail. 
And  he  felt  a  glow  of  pride  when  thinking  of  that  little  tail ; 
And  his  beak  was  marked  with  vigor,  curving  like  a  wondrous  hook, 
Thick  and  ugly  was  his  body,  —  such  a  form  as  made  one  look. 


298 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Didactic  poetry  is  that  wMcli  is  written  professedly  for  the 
purpose  of  instruction.  Descriptive  poetry  merely  describes 
the  person  or  the  object. 

Didactic  poetry  S-iould  be  replete  with  ornament,  especially,  where  it 
can  be  done,  with  figurative  language.  This  rule  should  be  preserved  in 
order  to  keep  up  the  interest  in  the  subject,  which  is  usually  dry.  Not 
even  the  epic  demands  such  glowing  and  picturesque  epithets,  such  dar- 
ing and  forcible  metaphors,  such  pomp  of  numbers  and  dignity  of  expres- 
sion, as  the  didactic ;  for,  the  lower  or  more  famiHar  the  object  described 
is,  the  greater  must  be  the  power  of  language  to  preserve  it  from  debase- 
rnent.^  Didactic  and  descriptive  poetry  are  so  intimately  allied,  that  tho 
two  kinds  can  rarely  be  found  asunder,  and  we  give  a  poem  this  or  that 
denomination,  according  as  the  one  or  the  other  of  these  characteristics 
appears  to  predominate. 


No  one  now  can  see  the  dodo,  which  the  sturdy  Dutchman  found ; 
Long  ago  those  wondrous  stumps  of  legs  have  ceased  to  tread  the  ground. 
If,  perchance,  his  bones  we  find,  oh,  let  us  gently  turn  them  o'er, 
Saying,  '  'T  was  a  gallant  world  when  dodos  lived  in  days  of  yore.' 

IL  The  Melancholy  Sentimental.  — We  need  only  recollect,  that 
when  the  dodo  lived,  somebody  else  lived,  who  is  nonliving  now,  and  wo 
bave  our  cue  at  once. 

Oh,  when  the  dodo's  feet 

His  native  island  pressed, 
How  many  a  Avarm  heart  beat 

Within  a  living  breast, 
Which  now  can  beat  no  more, 

But  crumbles  into  dust, 
And  finds  its  turn  is  o'er, 

As  all  things  earthly  must ! 

He 's  dead  that  nam'd  the  bird, 

That  gallant  Portuguese ; 
Who  weeps  not,  having  heard 

Of  changes  such  as  these  ? 
The  Dutchman,  too,  is  gone  : 

The  dodo 's  gone  beside  ; 
They  teach  us  every  one 
How  vain  is  earthly  pride  ! 
Ill,  Impfomptu  for  a  lady''s  album. 

The  dodo  vanished,  as  we  must  confess, 
Being  unfit  to  live  from  ugliness  ; 
Surely,  methinks,  it  will  not  be  too  bold 
To  hope  the  converse  of  the  rule  will  hold. 
If  lively  things  no  power  from  earth  can  sever, 
Ceia,  we  all  may  swear,  will  live  forever. 

IV  Bacchanalian,  with  full  chorus. 

The  dodo  once  lived,  and  he  does  n't  live  now; 
Yet,  why  should  a  cloud  overshadow  our  brow  ? 
The  loss  of  that  bird  ne'er  should  trouble  our  brains, 
Foi-,  though  he  is  gone,  stiU  our  claret  remains. 

Sing  dodo  —  dodo  —  jolly  dodo  ! 
Hurrah !  in  his  name  let  our  cups  overflow  I 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


299 


As  examples  of  didactic  poetry,  the  student  is  referred  to  Pope's 
•*  Moral  Essays  ; "  and,  for  instances  of  descriptive  poetry,  to  his  "  Wind- 
sor Forest,"  to  Milton's  "  L' Allegro,"  and  "  11  Fenseroso,"  and  to  Thom- 
son's "  Seasons." 

Among  the  examples  of  didactic  poetry,  Akenside's  "  Pleasm'es  of  the 
Imagination,"  and  Young's  "  Night  Thoughts,"  should  not  be  torgotten.* 
In  the  opinion  of  Johnson,  the  versihcation  of  the  former  work  is  con- 
sidered equal,  if  not  superior,  to  that  of  any  other  specimen  of  blank  Averse 
in  the  language.  Of  Young's  "  Night  Thoughts  "  it  may  be  said,  al- 
though it  has  been  stigmatized  as  a  long,  lugubrious  poem,  opposed  in  its 
composition  to  every  rule  of  sound  criticism,  full  of  extravagant  meta- 
phors, astounding  hyperboles,  and  never-ending  antitheses,  that  few 
poems  in  any  language  present  such  a  concentration  of  thought,  such  a 
rich  fund  of  poetical  beauties,  so  numerous  and  brilUant  corruscations  of 
genius,  and  so  frequent  occurrence  of  passages  of  the  pathetic  and  the 
sublime,  t 

*  Another  class  of  poems,  uniting  the  didactic  and  the  descriptive 
classes,  may  be  mentioned,  which  are  called  the  Sentimental.  "  The 
Pleasures  of  Memory,"  by  Rogers,  "  The  Pleasures  of  Hope,"  by  Camp- 
bell, belong  to  this  class.  "  The  Deserted  Village,"  and  "  The  Traveller," 
by  Goldsmith,  are  of  the  same  class,  and  can  scarcely  be  too  highly 
estimated. 

t  The  author  has  here,  as  in  some  other  parts  of  the  preceding  remarks, 
departed  from  the  expressions  of  Mr.  Booth,  to  whose  excellent  work  oa 
the  principles  of  English  Composition  he  is  largely  indebted,  here  as  else- 
where, in  this  volume. 


We  know  that  he  perished ;  yet  why  shed  a  tear ! 
This  generous  bowl  all  our  bosoms  can  cheer. 
The  dodo  is  gone,  and,  no  doubt,  in  his  day, 
He  delighted,  as  we  do,  to  moisten  his  clay. 

Sing  dodo  —  dodo  — jolly  dodo  ! 
Hurrah !  in  his  name  let  our  cups  overflow  ! 

V.  The  Eemonstrative,  addressed  to  those  who  do  not  believe  there 
ever  was  a  dodo. 

What !  disbelieve  the  dodo  ! 

The  like  was  never  neard  '. 
Deprive  the  face  of  nature 

Of  such  a  wondrous  bird ! 
I  always  loved  the  dodo. 

When  quite  a  little  boy, 
I  saw  it  in  my  "  Goldsmith,"  * 

My  heart  beat  high  with  joy. 

1  think  now  how  my  uncle 

One  morning  went  to  town 
He  brought  me  home  a  "  Goldsmith," 

Which  cost  him  half  a  crown. 
No  picture  like  the  dodo 

Such  rapture  could  impart ; 
Then  don't  deny  the  dodo, 

It  wounds  my  inmost  heart." 


800 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Satires  are  discourses  or  poems  in  which  wickedness  and 
folly  are  exposed  with  severity,  or  held  up  to  ridicule.  They 
differ  from  Lampoons  and  Pasquinades,  in  being  general^ 
rather  than  personal,  and  from  sarcasm,  in  not  expressin"- 
contempt  or  scorn.  ° 

Satires  are  usually  included  under  the  head  of  didactic  poems,  but 
every  class  of  poems  may  include  the  satirical.  In  satires  it  is  the  class, 
the  crime,  or  the  folly,  which  is  the  proper  object  of  attack,  and  not  the 
mdividuaL 

A  .Lampoon,  or  Pasquinade,  is  a  personal  satire,  written 
with  the  intention  of  reproaching,  irritating,  or  vexing  the  in- 
dividual, rather  than  to  reform  him.  It  is  satisfied  with  low 
abuse  and  vituperation,  rather  than  with  proof  or  argument. 

An  Apophthegm,  Apothegm,  or  Apothem,  is  a  short,  sen- 
tentious, instructive  remark,  usually  in  prose,  but  rarely  in 
verse,  uttered  on  a  particular  occasion,  or  by  a  distinguished 
character ;  as  that  of  Cato : 

"Men,  by  doing  nothing,  soon  learn  to  do  mischief." 


LXXX. 
STYLE. 

"  For  different  styles  with  different  subjects  sort, 
As  different  garbs  with  country  town  and  court." 

j.n  the  Introduction  to  this  volume,  it  was  stated  that  the 
most  obvious  divisions  of  Composition,  with  respect  to  the 
nature  of  its  subjects,  are  the  Narrative,  the  Descriptive,  the 
Didactic,  the  Persuasive,  the  Pathetic,  and  the  Argumenta- 
tive. The  Narrative  division  embraces  the  relation  of  facts 
and  events,  real  or  fictitious.  The  Descriptive  division  in- 
cludes descriptions  of  all  kinds.  The  Didactic  division  com- 
prehends, as  its  name  implies,  all  kinds  of  pieces  which  are 
designed  to  convey  instruction.  The  Pathetic  division  em- 
braces such  writings  as  are  calculated  to  affect  the  feelings,  or 
excite  the  passions ;  and  the  Argumentative  division  includes 
those  only  which  are  addressed  to  the  understanding,  with  the 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  301 


intention  of  affecting  the  judgment.  These  different  divisions 
of  composition  are  not  always  preserved  distinct,  but  are 
sometimes  united  or  mixed.  With  regard  to  forms  of  expres- 
sion, a  writer  may  express  his  ideas  m  various  ways,  thus 
laying  the  foundation  of  a  distinction  called  Style. 

Style,  is  defined  by  Dr.  Blair,  to  be  "  the  peculiar  manner 
in  which  a  writer  expresses  his  thoughts  by  words." 

Various  terms  are  applied  to  style  to  express  its  character,  as  a  harsh 
style,  a  dry  style,  a  tumid  or  bombastic  style,  a  loose  style  a  terse  style,  a 
laconic  or  a  verbose  style,  a  flowing  style,  a  lofty  style,  an  elegant  style, 
an  epistolaiy  style,  a  foiToal  style,  a  familiar  style,  &c. 

The  divisions  of  style,  as  given  by  Dr.  Blair,  are  as  follows  :  The  dif- 
fuse and  the  concise,  the  nervous  and  the  feeble,  the  dry,  the  plain,  the 
neat,  the  elegant  and  the  florid,  the  simple,  the  aff'ected,  and  the  vehe- 
ment. These  terms  are  altogether  arbitrary,  and  are  not  uniformly  ad 
opted  in  every  treatise  on  rhetoric.  Some  writers  use  the  terms  barren 
and  luxuriant,  forcible  and  vehement,  elevated  and  dignified,  idiomatic, 
easy  and  animated,  &c.,  in  connexion  with  the  terms,  or  some  of  the 
terms,  employed  by  Dr.  Blair. 

The  character  of  style,  and  the  terra  by  which  it  is  designated,  depends 
partly  on  the  clearness  and  fulness  with  which  the  idea  is  expressed, 
partly  on  the  degree  of  ornament  or  of  figurative  language  employed,  and 
partly  on  the  nature  of  the  ideas  themselves. 

The  terms  concise,  diffuse,  nervous,  and  feeble,  refer  to  the  clearness,  the 
fulness,  and  the  force  with  v/hich  the  idea  is  expressed.  Dry,  plain,  neat, 
and  florid,  are  terms  used  to  express  the  degree  of  ornament  employed ; 
while  the  character  of  the  thoughts  or  ideas  themselves  is  expressed  by  the 
names  of  simple  or  natural,  affected  and  vehement. 

A  concise  *  writer  compresses  his  ideas  into  the  fewest  words,  and  theso 
the  most  expressive. 

A  diffuse  writer  unfolds  his  idea  fully,  by  placing  it  in  a  variety  of  lights. 

A  nervous  writer  gives  us  a  strong  idea  of  his  meaning  — his  words  are 
always  expressive  —  every  phrase  and  every  figure  renders  the  picture 
which  he  would  set  before  us  more  striking  and  complete. 

A  feeble  writer  has  an  indistinct  view  of  his  subject ;  unmeaning  words 
and  loose  epithets  escape  him  ;  his  expressions  are  vague  and  general,  his 
arrangements  indistinct,  and  our  conception  of  his  meaning  will  be  faint 
and  confused.  *  . 


*  Under  the  head  of  Conciseness  in  style  may  be  noticed  what  is  called  the  Laconic 
Style ^  from  the  inhabitants  of  Laconia,  who  were  remarkable  for  using  few  words.  As 
an  instance  of  that  kind  of  style,  may  be  mentioned  the  celebrated  reply  of  Leonidas 
fcinpr  of  Sparta  to  Xerxes,  who,  with  his  army  of  over  a  million  of  men,  was  opposed 
by  Leonidas,  with  only  three  hundred.  When  Xerxes  sent  to  him  with  the  haughty 
direction  to  lay  down  his  arms,  the  Spartan  king  replied,  with  characteristic  brevity. 

Come  and  take  them." 

Another  instance  of  the  same  is  afforded  in  the  celebrated  letter  of  Dr.  Franklin  to 
Mr.  Strahan,  which  is  in  these  words  : 

"Philadelphia,  July  5th,  1775. 

"Mr.  Strahan, 

"  You  are  a  member  of  that  Parliament,  and  have  formed  part  of  that  majority, 
which  has  condemned  my  native  country  to  destruction. 

"  You  have  begun  to  burn  our  towns,  and  to  destroy  their  inhabitants. 

"  Look  at  your  hands,  —  they  are  stained  with  the  blood  of  your  relations  and  youi 
acquaintances. 

*'you  and  I  were  long  friends ;  you  are  at  present  my  enemy,  and  I_am  yours. 

"Benjamin  Franklin." 

26 


802 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


A  dry  writer  uses  no  ornament  of  any  kind,  and,  content  with  being 
•inderstood,  aims  not  to  please  the  fancy  or  the  ear. 

A  plain  writer  employs  very  little  ornament ;  he  observes  perspicuity, 
propriety,  punty,  and  precision  in  his  language,  but  attempts  none  of  the 
graces  of  composition.  A  dry  writer  is  incapable  of  ornament,— a  plain 
writer  goes  not  in  pursuit  of  it. 

A  neat  writer  is  careful  in  the  choice  of  his  words,  and  the  graceful 
coUocation  of  them.  His  sentences  are  free  from  the  encumbrances  of 
supei-fluoiis  words,  and  his  figures  are  short  and  accurate,  rather  than  bold 
and  glowing. 

An  elegant  writer  possesses  all  the  graces  of  ornament,  —  polished  periods, 
Hgurative  language,  harmonious  expressions,  and  a  great  degree  of  purity 
m  the  choice  of  his  words,  all  characterized  by  perspicuity  and  propriety 
He  is  one,  in  short,  who  delights  the  fancy  and  the  ear,  whUe  he  informs 
the  understanding. 

A  florid  or  flowery  writer  is  characterized  by  excess  of  ornament ;  and 
seems  to  be  more  intent  on  beauty  of  language  than  solidity  of  thought. 

A  simple  or  natural  writer  is  distinguished  by  simplicity  of  plan :  he 
makes  his  thoughts  appear  to  rise  naturally  from  his  subject,  he  has  no 
marks  ot  art  m  his  expressions,  and  although  he  may  be  characterized  by 
great  richness  both  of  language  and  imagination,  he  appears  to  write  in  that 
way  not  because  he  had  studied  it,  but  because  it  is  the  mode  of  expression 
most  natural  to  him. 

^  An  aff"ected  writer  is  the  very  reverse  of  a  simple  one.    He  uses  words 
m  uncommon  meanings— employs  pom]«)us  expressions  —  and  his  whole 
manner  is  characterized  by  singularity  rather  than  by  beauty. 
•i^^Ki  "^^"'^  writer  uses  strong  expressions  —  is  characterized  by  con- 
^^^^^^^^  J  warmth  of  manner  — and  presents  his  ideas  clearly  and  fully  be- 

The  following  directions  are  given  by  Dr.  Blair  for  attaimng  a  good  style : 

The  first  direction  is,  study  clear  ideas  of  the  subject  on  which  you  are 
to  write  or  speak.  What  we  conceive  clearly  and  feel  strongly,  we  natur- 
ally express  with  clearness  and  strength. 

Secondly,  to  the  acquisition  of  a  good  style,  frequency  of  composing  is 
indispensably  necessary.  But  it  is  not  every  kind  of  composition  that  will 
improve  style.  By  a  cai-eless  and  hasty  habit  of  writmg,  a  bad  style  will 
be  acquired.  In  the  beginning,  therefore,  we  ought  to  write  slowly  and 
with  much  care.    Facility  and  speed  are  the  fruit  of  experience. 

Thirdly,  acquaintance  with  the  style  of  the  best  authors  is  peculiarly 
requisite.  Hence  a  just  taste  will  be  formed,  and  a  copious  fund  of  words 
supplied  on  every  subject.  No  exercise,  perhaps,  will  be  found  more  use- 
ful for  acquiring  a  proper  style,  than  translating  some  passage  from  an 
eminent  author  in  our  own  words,  and  then  comparing  what  we  have  written 
with  the  style  of  th^  author.  Such  an  exercise  will  show  us  our  defects 
will  teach  us  to  correct  them,  and,  from  the  variety  of  expression  which  it 
will  exhibit,  will  conduct  us  to  that  which  is  most  beautiful. 

Fourthly,  caution  must  be  used  against  servile  imitation  of  any  author 
whatever.  Desire  of  imitating  hampers  genius,  and  generally  produces 
stiffness  of  expression.  They  who  copy  an  author  closely,  commonly  copy 
his  faults  as  well  as  his  beauties.  It  is  much  better  to  have  something  of 
our_ own,  though  of  moderate  beauty,  than  to  shine  in  borrowed  ornaments 
which  v/ill  at  last  betray  the  poverty  of  our  genius. 


*  The  student  who  would  see  the  subject  of  style  treated  with  great  clearness  and 
beauty,  will  fin^  .t  treated  with  much  elegance  and  ability  in  ' '  Newman  &  Ilhetorick. '  • 
ms  remarlt*  on  vivacity  of  style  are  particularly  recommended  to  the  careful  study 
»f  tb«  3ieani^r. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


803 


Fifthly,  always  adapt  your*  style  to  the  subject,  and  likewise  to  the 
capacity  of  your  hearers  or  readers.  When  we  are  to  write  or  to  speak, 
we  should  previously  fix  in  our  minds  a  clear  idea  of  the  end  aimed  at ; 
keep  this  steadily  in  view,  and  adapt  our  style  to  it.  t 

Lastly,  let  not  attention  to  style  engross  us  *  so  much,  as  to  prevent  a 
nigher  degree  of  attention  to  the  thoughts.  He  is  a  contemptible  writer, 
who  looks  not  beyond  the  dress  of  language  ;  who  lays  not  the  cliief  stress 
upon  his  matter,  and  employs  vot  such  ornaments  of  stylo  as  are  manly 
not  foppish.  '  • 


LXXXI. 

DIRECTIONS  TO  STUDENTS  IN  EEVISINQ  AND  COK- 
RECTING  THEIR  COMPOSITIONS,  BEFORE  THEY  ARE 
PRESENTED  TO  THE  TEACHER. 

Read  over  your  exercise  to  ascertain,  1.  whether  the  words 
are  correctly  spelled ;  2.  the  pauses  and  capital  letters  are 
properly  used ;  3.  that  the  possessive  case  is  correctly  written 
with  the  apostrophe  and  the  letter  s ;  4.  the  hyphen  placed 
between  the  parts  of  a  compound  word,  and  also  used  at  the 
end  of  the  line  when  part  of  the  word  is  in  one  line  and 
another  part  in  the  succeeding  line  (recollecting,  in  this  case, 
that  the  letters  of  the  same  syllable  must  all  be  loritten  in  the 
same  line)  ;  5.  that  the  marks  of  quotation  are  inserted  when 
you  have  borrowed  a  sentence  or  an  expression  from  any  one 
else ;  6.  whether  the  pronouns  are  all  of  the  same  number 
with  their  antecedents,  and  the  verbs  of  the  same  number 
with  their  nominatives  ;  7.  whether  you  can  get  rid  of  some 
of  the  "  ands  "  in  your  exercise,  by  means  of  the  rules  laid 
down  in  Lesson  XX.,  and  whether  some  other  words  may 
not  be  omitted  without  weakening  the  expression,  and  also 


*  The  change  of  persons  in  these  rules,  if  not  absolutely  faulty,  is  certainly  inele- 
gant.  The  language  is  literally  taken  from  the  abridgment  of  Dr.  Blair's  ^ihetorick. 

t  Two  of  the  greatest  faults  that  can  be  committed  in  writing  consist  in  degrading 
a  subject  naturally  elevated,  by  low  expressions;  —  and  the  expressing  a  mean  or 
trivial  idea  by  high  sounding  epithets.  The  former  is  called  Bathos  ;  —  and  the  latter 
Bombast. 

The  student  who  wishes  for  specimens  of  the  various  kinds  of  style  men. 
tioned  above,  will  find  quite  a  collection  of  them  arranged  under  their  appropriat* 
Reads,  for  examples  in  rhetoric,  in  a  volume  recently  prepared  by  Mrs.  L.  C.  Tuthill, 
nnd  pnntpd  and  published  by  S.  Babcock,  of  New  Haven,  called  "  The  YoungLadies 
Reader. "  It  was  the  author's  design  to  insert  such  specimens  in  this  volume,  but  h« 
finds  it  necessary  to  reserve  the  space  which  they  would  occupy  for  other  mattei 
which  he  deems  more  important  to  the  completion  of  his  plan.  For  the  same  reason , 
he  has  omitted  the  specimens  which  he  intended  to  present  in  the  respective  depart, 
ments  of  l^arrative.  jDescriptive,  Didactic,  Pathetic,  and  Argumentative  writing. 


304  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


whether  you  have  introduced  all  the  words  necessarv  for  the 
full  expression  of  your  Meas ;  8.  whether  you  have  repeated 
the  same  word  in  the  same  sentence,  or  in  any  sentence  near 
it,  and  have  thus  been  betrayed  into  a  tautology  (See  Lesson 
XXIL)  ;  9.  whether  you  cannot  divide  some  of  your  long 
sentences  into  shorter  ones,  and  thereby  better  preserve  the 
unity  of  the  sentence  (See  Lesson  XXXL)  ;  and  lastly, 
whether  part  or  parts  of  your  exercise  may  not  be  divided 
into  separate  paragraphs. 

The  following  rules  must  also  he  observed, 

1.  No  abbreviations  are  allowable  in  prose,  and  numbers  (except  in 
dates)  must  be  expressed  in  words,  not  in  figures. 

2.  In  all  cases,  excepting  where  despatch  is  absolutely  necessary,  the 
character  &,  and  others  of  a  similar  nature,  must  not  be  used,  but  the 
whole  word  must  be  written  out- 

_  3.  The  letters  of  the  same  syllable  must  always  be  written  in  the  same 
Hne.  When  there  is  not  room  in  a  line  for  all  the  letters  of  a  syllable, 
they  must  all  be  carried  into  the  next  line  ;  and  when  a  word  is  divided 
by  placing  one  or  more  of  the  syllables  in  one  line,  and  the  remainder  in 
the  following  line,  the  hyphen  must  always  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
former  line. 

4.  The  title  of  the  piece  must  always  be  in  a  line  by  itself,  and  should 
be  written  in  larger  letters  than  the  exercise  itself. 

5.  _  The  exercise  should  be  commenced  not  at  the  extreme  left  hand  of 
tHe  line,  but  a  Httle  towards  the  right.  Every  separate  paragraph  should 
also  commence  in  the  same  way. 

6.  The  crotchets  or  brackets  which  enclose  a  parenthesis  should  be 
used  as  sparmgly  as  possible.  Their  place  may  often  be  supphed  by 
commas. 

Suggestions  to  Teachers  with  regard  to  the  written  exercises 
of  Students. 

1.  Examine  the  exercise  in  reference  to  all  those  points 
laid  down  in  the  directions  for  students  in  reviewing  and  cor- 
recting their  compositions.    (S,ee  page  303.) 

2.  Merits  for  composition  should  be  predicated  on  their 
neatness,  correctness,  (in  the  particulars  stated  in  the  direc 
tions  to  pupils,  page  303),  length,  style,  &c. ;  but  the  highest 
merits  should  be  given  for  the  strongest  evidence  of  intellect 
in  the  production  of  ideas,  and  original  sentiments  and  forms 
of  expression. 

3.  Words  that  are  misspelt,  should  be  spelled  by  the  whole 
class  J  ai\d  those  words  which  are  frequently  misspelt  should 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


be  recorded  in  a  book  kept  for  tliat  purpose,  and  occasionaUy 
spelt  on  the  slate  by  the  class.  .  , 

4.  Keep  a  book  in  which  the  student  may  have  the  i^^i- 
let^e  to  record  such  compositions  as  are  of  superior  merit. 
This  book  should  be  kept  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher,  and  re- 
main the  permiinent  property  of  the  institution.  This  will 
have  an  exceUent  effect,  especially  if  additional  merits  are 
given  for  the  recording  of  a  composition. 

5.  A  short  lecture  on  the  subject  of  the  composition  a& 
signed  to  a  class,  showing  its  bearings,  its  divisions,  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  should  be  treated,  will  greatly  facilitate 
their  progress,  and  interest  them  m  the  exercise. 

6.  Have  a  set  of  arbitrary  marks,  which  should  be  ex- 
plained and  understood  by  tbe  class,  by  which  the  exercise 
should  be  corrected.  This  is,  in  fact,  nothuig  less  than  a 
method  of  short  hand,  and  will  save  the  trouble  of  much 
writing. 

7.  Insist  upon  the  point,  that  the  exercise  should  be  writ- 
ten in  the  student's  hest  hand,  with  care,  and  without  haste. 
For  this  purpose,  ample  time  should  always  be  allowed  for 
the  production  of  the  exercise.  A  week  at  least,  if  not  a 
fortnight,  should  intervene  between  the  assigning  and  the  re- 
quiring of  the  exercise.  Negligence  in  the  mechanical 
sxecution,  will  induce  the  neglect  of  the  more  important 
qualities. 

8.  Require  the  compositions  to  be  written  on  alternate 
pages,  leaving  one  page  blank,  for  such  remarks  as  may  be 
suggested  by  the  exercise,  or  for  supplying  such  words  or 
sentences  as  may  have  accidentally  been  omitted. 

9.  In  correcting  the  exercises,  care  should  be  taken  to 
preserve  as  much  as  possible  the  ideas  which  the  pupil  in- 
tended to  express,  making  such  alterations  only  as  are  neces- 
sary to  give  them  clearness,  unity,  strength,  and  harmony, 
and  a  proper  connexion  with  the  subject,  for  it  is  the  stu- 
dent's own  idea  which  ought  to  be  "  taught  how  to  shoot." 
An  idea  thus  humored  will  thrive  better  than  one  which  ia 
not  a  native  of  the  soil. 

10.  It  is  recommended  that  a  uniformity  be  required  in 
the  size  and  quality  of  the  paper  of  the  exercises  of  the  class 
—  that  the  name  (real  or  fictitious)  of  the  writer,  together 
with  the  date  and  number  of  the  composition,  be  placed  con- 
spicuously on  the  back  of  the  exercise.    The  writing  should 

26* 


306  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOTf. 


be  plain  and  without  ornament,  so  that,  no  room  being  left  for 
flourish  or  display,  the  principal  attention  of  each  stuxlent  may 
bejfevoted  to  the  language  and  the  sentiments  of  his  perform- 
ances. It  is  also  recommended,  that  the  paper  on  which  the 
exercise  is  written  be  a  letter  sheet  folded  once,  or  in  quarto 
form,  making  four  leaves  or  eight  pages.  This  form  is  of  use, 
especially  in  the  earlier  stages  of  his  progress,  because  it  en- 
ables him  more  easily  to  jill  a  page,  and  encourages  him  with 
the  idea  that  he  is  making  progress  in  his  exercise.  In  the 
writing  of  compositions,  a  task  to  which  all  students  address 
themselves  with  reluctance,  nothing  should  be  omitted  by  the 
teacher,  however  trivial  it  may  at  first  appear,  by  which  he 
may  stimulate  the  student  to  exertion. 

11.  Accommodate  the  corrections  to  the  style  of  the  stu- 
dent's own  production.  An  aim  at  too  great  correctness  may 
possibly  cramp  the  genius  too  much,  by  rendering  th6  student 
timid  and  diffident ;  or  perhaps  discourage  him  altogether,  by 
producing  absolute  despair  of  arriving  at  any  degree  of  per- 
fection. For  this  reason,  the  teacher  should  show  the  student 
where  he  has  erred,  either  in  the  thought,  the  structure  of 
the  sentence,  the  syntax,  or  the  choice  of  words.  Every  al- 
teration, as  has  abeady  been  observed,  should  difier  as  little 
as  possible  from  what  the  student  has  wi^itten ;  as  givii^  an 
entire  new  cast  to  the  thought  and  expression  will  lead  him 
into  an  unknown  path  not  easy  to  follow,  and  divert  his  mind 
from  that  original  line  of  thinking  which  is  natural  to  him. 

12.  In  large  institutions,  where  a  class  in  composition  is 
numerous,  the  teacher  may  avail  himself  (5f  the  assistance  of 
the  more  advanced  students,  by  requiring  them  to  inspect  the 
exercises  of  the  younger.  This  must  be  managed  with  great 
delicacy  ;  and  no  allusion  be  allowed  to  be  made  out  of  the 
recitation  room,  by  the  inspector,  to  the  errors  or  mistakes 
which  he  has  discovered.  He  should  be  required  to  note  in 
pencil,  his  corrections  and  remarks,  and  sign  his  own  name 
(also  in  pencil)  to  the  exercise  under  that  of  the  writer,  to 
ehow  that  he  is  responsible  for  the  corrections.  * 


*  Instead  of  a  -nritten  exercise,  the  teacher  mav,  with  advantage,  occa- 
sionally present  to  the  student  a  piece  selected  from  some  >:ood  •writer: 
requiring  him  to  present  a  rhetorical  analysis  of  the  same.  This  analysia 
»^oiiM  comprehend  the  following  operations : 

Prysing. 

Punctuation. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOW.  307 


The  preceding  exercise  is  presented  merely  to  show  the  mode  m  which, 
in  conformity  with  the  suggestions  just  made,  the  student's  compositions 
mav  be  corrected.  The  exercise  is  one  of  a  class  of  veiy  young  students 
By"  this  example,  the  teacher  will  become  acquainted  with  a  set  of  arbi- 
trary marks  for  the  correction  of  errors,  which  may  easily  be  explained 
to  a  class,  and  when  understood  will  save  the  teacher  much  writing. 

Thus,  when  a  word  is  misspelt  or  incorrectly  written,  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  draw  a  horizontal  Une  under  it,  as  in  the  following  exercise.  If 
a  capital  is  incorrectly  used,  or  is  wanted  instead  of  a  small  letter,  a  shwt 
perpendicular  mark  is  used.  When  entire  words  or  expressions  are  to  be 
altered,  thev  are  surrounded  with  black  lines,  and  the  correct  expression 
is  written  on  tlie  blank  page  on  the  left.  When  merely  the  order  of  the 
words  is  to  be  altered,  figures  are  written  over  the  words  designatmg  the 
order  in  which  they  are  to  be  read. 


Synonymes,  collected,  applied,  defined,  distinguished,  and  lUustrated. 

Variety  of  expression,  phrases  generalized,  particularized,  translated 
from  Latin  to  Saxon  derivatives,  and  the  reverse,  expanded,  compressed. 

FisTires  of  speech  analyzed.  .    ,  .  t        ?  a  ? 

Students  of  hio-herg,  .de  may  also  be  exercised  m  the  Logical  A^ialy sis 
of  the  same  subject,  n.  ticiug  the  subject  with  its  scope,  topics,  method 
And  lastly  in  a  Critical  Analysis,  relating  to  the  choice  of  words. 

Structure  of  the  sentences.     \    ^,  _  _ 

Style  I  Of  these  he  will  give  the  general  charao- 

Eloquence.  |     ter,  with  a  particular  analysis. 

Ideas.  J 

Errors. 

Boantiee. 


308 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COilPOSITIOK. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


309 


,•5 


11 


S 

I 

Is 


•Si 


ft 


310  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  C03IPOSITI03f. 


Lxxxn. 

MAEKS  USED  BY  PRDsTERS  IN  THE  COEEECTION  OS 
PROOE-SHEETS. 

Many  mistakes  in  printing  may  be  avoided,  when  the  printer  and  the 
writer  clearly  understand  one  another.  It  is  thought  it  will  be  useful  to 
present  in  this  volume  a  -view  of  the  manner  in  which  proof-sheets  are 
corrected. 

On  the  opposite  page  is  a  specimen  of  a  proof-sheet,  with  the  correc- 
tions upon  it.  A  little  attention  will  readily  enable  the  student  to  under- 
stand the  object  of  the  various  marks  which  it  contains,  particularly  if 
taken  in  connexion  with  the  explanation  here  given. 

An  inverted  letter  is  indicated  by  the  character  and  in  the  mode  repre- 
sented in  2so.  2. 

When  a  wrong  letter  is  discovered,  a  line  is  drawn  through  it  and  the 
proper  letter  written  in  the  margin,  as  in  2So.  1.  The  coiTection  is  made 
in  the  same  manner  when  it  is  desired  to  substitute  one  word  for  another. 

If  a  letter  or  word  is  found  to  be  omitted,  a  caret  { A )  is  put  under  its 
place,  and  the  letter  or  word  to  be  supplied  is  written  in  the  margin ;  as  in 
Is  OS.  8  and  19. 

If  there  be  an  omission  of  several  words,  or  if  it  is  desired  to  insert  a 
new  clause  or  sentence,  which  is  too  long  to  admit  of  being  written  in  the 
side  margin,  it  is  customary  to  indicate  by  a  caret  the  place  of  the  omis 
sion.  or  for  the  insertion  of  the  new  matter,  and  to  write  on  the  bottom 
nargin  the  sentence  to  be  supplied,  connecting  it  with  the  caret  by  a  hne 
Irawn  from  the  one  to  the  other ;  as  in  Xo.  15. 

If  a  superfluous  word  or  letter  is  detected,  it  is  marked  out  by  drawing 
a  stroke  through  it,  and  a  character  which  stands  for  the  Latin  word  dele 
Cexpunge)  is  ^vlitten  against  it  in  the  margin  ;  as  in  No.  4. 

The  transposition  of  words  or  letters  is  indicated  as  in  the  three  exam- 
ples marked  Xo.  12. 

If  two  words  are  improperly  joined  together,  or  there  is  not  suflScient 
space  between  them,  a  caret  is  to  be  interposed,  and  a  character  denoting 
separation  to  be  marked  in  the  margin  opposite ;  as  in  Xo.  6. 

K  the  parts  of  a  word  are  improperly  separated,  they  are  to  be  linked 
together  by  two  marks,  resembling  parentheses  placed  horizontally,  one 
above  and"  the  other  beneath  the  word,  as  in  the  manner  indicated  in 
No.  20. 

Where  the  spaces  between  words  are  too  large,  this  is  to  be  indicated 
in  a  similar  manner,  excepting  that  instead  of  two  marks,  as  in  the  case  of 
ft  word  improperly  separated,  only  ont  is  employed  ;  as  in  Xo.  9. 

Where  it  is  desired  to  make  a  new  paragraph,  the  appropriate  character 
{%)  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  and  also  noted  in  the  mar- 
gin opposite  ;  as  in  Xo.  10. 

Where  a  passage  has  been  improperly  broken  into  two  paragraphs,  the 
parts  are  to  be  hooked  together,  and  the  words  "  no  break"  written  oppo- 
sire  in  the  margin :  as  in  Xo.  1 8. 

If  a  word  or  clatise  has  been  marked  out  or  altered,  and  it  is  afterwards 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  311 

>  a       Though  a  variety  of  opinions  exists  as  to 

the  individual  by  wqom  the  art  of  printing  was  ^ 

first  discovered;  yet  all  authorities  concur  in 

admitting  Peter  Schoeffer  to  be  the^  person  3  Cf^^ 

who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having  learned 

*  §    the  art  of  -e^  cutting  the  letters  from  the  Gut- 

5  ^  tembergs  |,  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  been 

Q      the  first  whoengraved  on  copper^plates.    The  // 

^  following  testimony  is  preseved  in  the  family,    g  ^  , 

g^by    Jo.    Fred.    Faustus  of  Ascheffenburg :  ^ 

«o<^  1"  Peter  Schoeffer  of  Gernshiem,  perceiving  gpcfafva 

11.,,    his   master    Fausts  design,  and  being  himself 
V  ^ 

12 1^.  f desirous  fardently)  to  improve  the  art,  found 
out  (by  the  good  providence  of  God)  the 
method  of  cutting  (ineidcndi)-  the  characters^s  j^tct/ 
in  a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be 
'/singly  cast\^  instead  of  bi_eng  cut.    He  pri-  ^  ^/ 

vately  cut  matrices  for  the  whole  alphabet- 
15  Faust  was  so  pleased  with  the  contrivance 
X}th3p       promised  jjeter  to  give  him  his  only  ^  ^f- 
I     /daughter  Christina  in  marriage,  a  promise  ^^^a^ 
^^^ichjie^^ooi^^  ^oLaft 
I    "'^  '    LEut  there  were^many  difaculties  at  first 
j  with  these  letters,  as  there  had  been  before  sdj^,^^^ 

with  wooden  ones,  the  metal  being  too  soft  3 
to  support  the  force  of  the  im^pression:  but    20  ^ 
this   defect  was  soon  remedied,  by  mixing 
a  substance  with  the  metal  which  sufficiently 
hardened  it)," 


812  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION". 


thought  best  to  retain  it,  it  is  dotted  beneath,  and  the  word  stet  (let  it 
stand)  written  in  the  margin ;  as  in  No.  13. 

The  punctuation  marks  are  variously  indicated;  —  the  comma  and 
semicolon_  are  noted  in  the  margin  with  a  perpendicular  line  on  the 
right,  as  in  No.  21 5  the  colon  and  period  have  a  circle  di^awn  round 
them,  as  in  the  two  examples  marked  No.  5 ;  the  apostrophe  is  placed 
between  two  convtrgent  marks  like  the  letter  V,  as  in  No.  11 ;  the  note 
of  admiration  and  interrogation,  as  also  the  parenthesis,  the  bracket,  and 
the  reference  marks,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  apostrophe ;  the  hyphen 
between  tAvo  perpendicular  lines,  as  in  No.  7,  and  the  dash  the  same  as 
the  hyphen. 

Capital  letters  are  indicated  by  three  horizontal  lines  drawn  beneath 
them  5  small  capitals,  by  two  horizontal  lines ;  Italic  by  a  single  line ;  with 
the  words  Cap.,  S.  Cap.,  and  Ital.  written  in  the  margin.  When  a  word 
is  improperly  italicised,  it  should  be  underscored,  and  Rom.  written  against 
it  in  the  margin.  Examples,  illustrative  of  all  these  cases,  will  be  found 
under  No.  3. 

A  broken  line  is  indicated  by  a  simple  stroke  of  the  pen  in  the  margin, 
dra\vn  either  horizontally,  or  as  indicated  in  No.  16. 

A  broken  letter  is  indicated  by  a  stroke  of  the  pen  drawn  under  it,  and 
a  cross  in  the  margin. 

When  a  letter  from  a  wrong  font,  that  is,  of  a  different  size  from  the 
rest,  appears  in  a  word,  it  is  to  be  noted  by  passing  the  pen  through  it, 
and  writing  wf.  in  the  margin,  as  in  No.  17. 

A  space  which  requires  to  be  depressed  is  to  be  marked  in  the  margin, 
by  a  perpendicular  line  between  two  horizontal  lines,  as  in  No  14. 

Different  names  are  given  to  the  various  sizes  of  types,  of  which  the 
following  are  most  used  in  book  printing. 

Pica.  ^  Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Small  Pica.  Abcdefghijldmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Long  Primer.  Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Bourgeois.  Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Brevier.  Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Minion.  Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Nonpareil.  Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Agate.  Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Pearl.  Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Diimiond.  AbcdefehijklnmopqrrtuvTOji. 

As  it  may  be  interesting  to  know  the  frequency  with  which  some  of  the 
letters  occur,  it  may  here  be  stated  that,  in  the  printer's  cases,  for  every 
hundred  of  the  letter  q  there  are  two  himdred  of  the  letter  x,  four  hundred 
of  k,  eight  hundred  of  5,  fifteen  hundred  of  c,  four  thousand  each  of  t,  n,  o, 
and  s,  four  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty  of  a,  four  thousand  five  hundred 
of  t,  and  six  thousand  of  the  letter  e. 


*  The  next  two  sizes  of  type  larger  than  the  above  are  called  English  and 
Great  Primer,  and  all  larger  than  these,  Double  Pica,  two  Line  Pica,  Three 
Line  PioR,  Fifteen  Line  Pica,  &c.,  according  as  they  exceed  the  Pica  in  size. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 


313 


Lxxxni. 


TECHNICAL  TEEMS  EELATING  TO  BOOKS. 

A  book  is  said  to  be  in  Folio  when  one  sheet  of  paper  makes 
but  two  leaves,  or  four  pages.  When  the  sheet  makes  four 
leaves  or  eight  pages,  it  is  said  to  be  in  Quarto  form ;  eight 
leaves  or  sixteen  pages,  in  Octavo ;  twelve  leaves  or  twenty- 
four  pages,  Duodecimo  ;  eighteen  leaves.  Octodecimo.  These 
terms  are  thus  abbreviated :  fol.  for  folio ;  4to  for  quarto ;  8vo 
for  octavo;  12mo  for  duodecimo  ;  18mo,  24s,  32s,  64s,  signify 
respectively  that  the  sheet  is  divided  into  eighteen,  twenty- 
four,  &c.,  leaves. 

The  Title-page  is  the  first  page,  containing  the  title ;  and 
a  picture  facing  it  is  called  the  Frontispiece. 

Vignette  is  a  French  term,  used  to  designate  the  descriptive 
or  ornamental  picture,  sometimes  placed  on  the  title-page  of  a 
book,  sometimes  at  the  head  of  a  chapter,  &c. 

The  Running-title  is  the  word  or  sentence_  at  the  top  of 
every  page,  generally  printed  in  capitals  or  Italic  letters. 

When  the  page  is  divided  into  several  parts  by  a  blank 
space,  or  a  line  running  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  each 
division  is  called  a  column ;  as  in  bibles,  dictionaries,  spelling- 
books,  newspapers,  &c. 

The  letters  A,  B,  C,  &c.,  and  A2,  A3,  &c.,  at  the  bottom 
of  the  page,  are  marks  for  directing  the  book-binder  in  col- 
lecting and  folding  the  sheets. 

The  catch-word  is  the  word  at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  on 
the  right  hand,  which  is  repeated  at  the  beginning  of  the  nexC, 
in  order  to  show  that  the  pages  succeed  one  another  in  proper 
order.    It  is  seldom  inserted  in  books  recently  printed. 

The  Italic  words  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  are 
those  which  have  no  corresponding  words  in  the  original  He- 
brew oi  Greek,  but  they  were  added  by  the  ti'anslatora  to 
complete  or  explain  the  sense. 


27 


814 


TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Lxxxiy. 

OBITUARY  NOTICE. 

An  Obituary  Notice  is  designed  to  commemorate  the  \lr- 
tues  which  distinguished  an  individual  recently  deceased. 
"Writings  of  this  kind  are  generally  fugitive  in  their  characr 
ter,  and  seldom  survive  the  occasion  which  called  them  forth. 
They  are  not  designed  to  present  many  of  the  events  of  the 
life  of  the  individual,  but  rather  a  general  summary  of  his 
character.  An  obituary  notice  is  a  kind  of  writing  generally 
confined  to  periodical  publications,  and  destitute  of  the  dig- 
nity of  biography,  and  the  minute  detail  of  memoirs. 

Model 


OBITUARY  NOTICE  OF  DR.  MATIGNON. 

The  Rev.  Francis  A.  Matignon,  D.  T>.,  nho  died  on  the  19th  of  Septem 
ber,  1818,  was  born  in  Paris,  November  10th,  1753.  Devoted  to  letters 
and  religion  from  his  earliest  youth,  his  progress  was  rapid  and  his 

Eiety  conspicuous.  He  attracted  the  notice  of  the  learned  faculty,  as 
e  passed  through  the  several  grades  of  classical  and  theological  studies  ; 
and,  having  taken  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Divinity,  he  was  ordained  a 
Priest,  on  Saturday,  the  19th  of  September,  1778,  the  very  day  of  the  month 
and  week,  which,  forty  years  after,  was  to  be  his  last.  In  the  year  1782, 
he  was  admitted  a  licentiate,  and  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity 
from  the  college  of  the  Sorbonne  in  1785.  At  this  time  he  was  appointed  Eegius 
Professor  of  Divinity  in  the  college  of  Navarre,  in  wdiich  seminary  he 
performed  his  duties  for  several  years,  although  his  state  of  health  was  not 
good. 

His  talents  and  piety  had  recommended  him  to  the  notice  of  a  Prelate  in 
great  credit,  (the  Cardinal  De  Brienne,)  who -obtained  for  him  the  grant;Of 
an  annuity  from  the  king,  Louis  the  Sixteenth,  which  was  sufficient  for  all 
his  wants,  established  him  in  independence,  and  took  away  all  anxiety  for 
the  future.  But  the  ways  of  Providence  are  inscmtable  to  the  wisest  and  best 
of  the  children  of  men.  The  revolution,  Avhich  dethroned  his  beloved  monarch, 
and  stained  the  altar  of  his  God  with  the  blood  of  holy  men,  drove  Dr.  Mat- 
ignon an  exile  from  his  native  shores.  He  fled  to  England,  where  he  re- 
mained several  months,  and  then  returned  to  France,  to  prepare  for  a 
voyage  to  the  United  States.  He  landed  in  Baltimore,  and  was  api^ointed 
by  Bishop  Carroll  Pastor  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Boston,  at  which  place 
he  aiTived  August  20th,  1792. 

The  talents  of  Dr.  ]\Iatignon  were  of  the  highest  order.  In  him  were 
united  a  sound  understanding,  a  rich  and  vigorous  imagination,  and  a  logical 
precision  of  thougiit.  His  learning  was  extensive,  critical,  and  profound, 
and  all  his  productions  were  deeply  cast,  symmetrically  formed,  and  beauti 
fully  colored.  The  fathers  of  the  church,  and  the  great  divines  of  every 
Qge  were  his  fauiiliar  friends.    His  divinity  was  not  merely  speculative,  nor 


•  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  315 

meielv  practical:  it  was  tlie  blended  influence  of  thought,  feeling,  and  ac- 
Son  He  hid  leaVne^^  divinitv  as  a  scholar,  taught  it  as  a  professor,  lelt  it  a3 
a  w'.h  DPev  and  iffused  it  as  a  faithful  pastor.  His  genius  and  his  virtues 
wei-^  uXist'oS ;  for  the  wise  bowed  to  his  superior  knowledge,  and  the 
Lmbk  cau<^M  t^^^  of  his  devotions.    With  the  unbelieving  and 

So7btful,r?  asoned  ^lith  the  mental  strength  of  the  apostle  Paul ;  and  he 
Timed  back  the  penitential  wanderer  with  the  kindness  and  aflection  ol 
Join  the  Evan  eU^t  His  love  for  mankind  flowed  in  the  purest  curren^ 
an  his  pietv  cauoht  a  glow  from  the  intensity  of  his  feehngs.  Rigid  and 
sctpulo^r tX  hin^elf,  hS  was  charitable  and  indulgent  to  othei.  1  o  you^^^^ 
in  a  particular  manner,  he  was  forgiving  and  J",  J^^^^^^^J^^^^ 

of  penitence  washed  away  the  stams  of  error  ;  for  h^]^^^*^  f.^^^^^^^.^P  .^^^^^^ 
fountains  of  human  nature,  and  knew  all  its  J^aknesses     Mam  ,  letr  eved 
from  follv  and  vice,  can  bear  witness  how  deeply  he  was  skilled  in  the 
Wee  ot' pai-ental  government;  that  science  so  little  understood,  and  for 
^^Tnt  of  4^cCso  many  evils  arise.    It  is  a  proof  of  a  great  mnid,  no  to  be 

cured  by  misfortunes  nor  narrowed  by.  any  particular  pumut  Di  Alat- 
ienon,  if  possible,  grew  milder  and  more  indulgent,  as  he  advanced  in  years, 
fhp  4orms  of  life  had  broken  the  heart  of  the  man,  but  out  ot  its  wounas 
ii^^shed  the  tkle  of  s^^  and  universal  Christian  chanty.    1  he  woes  of 

fift  Sush  the  feeblJ,  make  more  stupid  the  dull,  and  ^ ore  vindictive  the 
nroud-  but  the  great  mind  and  contrite  soul  are  expanded  with  Pper  be 
Snce  and%?armed  with  brighter  hopes,  by  sufienng,  -  knowmg,  that 
through  tribulation  and  anguish  the  diadem  of  the  samt  is  wm  . 

To  him  whose  heart  has  sickened  at  the  selfishness  of  "mankind,  and  wno 
has  see^the  low  and  trifling  pursuits  of  the  f  P^^oX  de  Tted 
beino-s,  it  is  sweet  and  refreshing  to  contemplate  the  Philosopher,  deligl  t^^^^ 
wTh^the  visions  of  other  worlds,  and  ravished  with  the  ^armomes  of  nat^^^^^ 
pursuing  his  course  abstracted  from  the  bustle  aroimd  him ;  how  much 
Lblerirthe  course  of  the  moral  and  Christian  philosopher  who  t^a^^s  &e 
wavs  of  God  to  man.   He  holds  a  holy  communion  with  Heaven,  walks  itu 

he  Creator  in  the  garden  at  every  hoV-  in  tli^^^y'^y^^hout  wi^shing  to  h^^^^^ 
himself.  AVhile  he  muses,  the  spirit  burns  within  him,  and  the  Jigh  mtin- 
enJ^s  of  the  inspiration  force  him  to  proclaim  to  the  chfldren  of  men  the 

''^SS^:!^:^^^  give  angels  pleasure,  -hen  «.ey  be^^^^^^^^ 
purified  and  elevated  being  dedicating  his  services,  not  to  the  mighty  n^^^^^ 
he  wise,  but  to  the  humblest  creatures  of  sorrow  and  ^^^^^^""S;  , 
not  seen  our  friend  leaving  these  sublime  con  emplations,  and  entei  ng  th^^^ 
habitations  of  want  and  woe  ?  relieving  their  temporal  ^^^f  ^^^^^^^J^"^^ 
tering  the  consolations  of  religion  to  the  despairing  soul  m  ^^e  agonies  ot 
divj^oTution  ?    Yes,  the  sons  of  the  forest  in  the  most  clii  Img  cl  mates,  the 
t;nls  o?theho;el,the  erring  and  the  profligate,  can  bear  witness^vit^ 
what  patience,  earnestness,  constancy,  and  mfldness,  he  laboied  to  make 

^^In  manners.  Dr.  Matignon  was  an  accomplished  gentleman,  possessing 
tha?Sness'of  heart  and  delicacy  of  feeling,  which  made  him  study  the 
wants  and  anticipate  the  wishes  of  all  he  knew.    He.was  well  acquainted 
with  the  politest  courtesies  of  society,  for  it  must  not,  m  accountrng  toi 
accomplishments,  be  forgotten,  that  he  was  born  and  educated  in  the  bosom 
of  refinement;  that  he  was  associated  ^^'^th  chevaliers  and  nobles  and  wa^^ 
patronized  by  cardinals  and  premiers.    In  his  f  ^-^^er  life  it  wa^s  not  un 
common  to  see  ecclesiastics  minghng  m  society  ^^th  Phi  osophe  s  a^^^^ 
courtiers,  and  still  preserving  the  most  P^^f.^  apostohc  P^^^^^ 
lives  and  conversation.  The  scrutinizing  eye  of  infidel  Philosophy  ^^^^^ 
them,  and  these  unbelievers  would  have' haded  it  as  a  tnmnpM^^^ 
caught  them  in  the  shghtest  deviation  from  their  P^'ofessions  But  no  gi  eater 
proof  of  the  soundnesfof  their  faith,  or  the  ardor  of  their  P  e^'  C^^^^^^^ 
asked,  taan  the  fact,  that,  from  all  the  bishops  m  France  at  the  commence^ 


( 


S16 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


ment  of  the  revolution,  amounting  to  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight,  bu»- 
three  only  were  found  wanting  in  integrity  and  good  faith,  when  they  were 
put  to  the  test ;  and  it  was  such  a  test,  too,  that  it  could  have  been  sup 
ported  by  religion  only.  In  passing  such  an  ordeal,  pride,  fortitude,  phi 
losophy,  and  even  insensibility  Avould  have  failed.  The  whole  strength  of 
human  nature  was  shrunken  and  blasted,  when  opposed  to  the  besom  of 
the  revolution.  Then  the  bravest  bowed  in  terror,  or  fled  in  affright;  but 
then  these  disciples  of  the  lowly  Jesus  taught  mankind  how  they  could  suffer 
for  his  sake. 

Dr.  Matignon  loved  his  native  country,  and  always  expressed  the  deepest 
interests  in  her  fortunes  and  fate  ;  yet  his  patriotism  never  infringed  on  his 
philanthropy.  He  spoke  of  England,  as  a  great  nation  which  contained 
much  to  admire  and  imitate ;  and  his  gratitude  kindled  at  the  remembrance 
of  British  munificence  and  generosity  to  the  exiled  priests  of  a  hostile  nation 
i)f  different  religious  creeds. 

When  Dr.  Matignon  came  to  Boston,  new  trials  awaited  him.  His  prede- 
sessors  in  this  place  wanted  either  talents,  character,  or  perseverance  ;  and 
nothing  of  consequence  had  been  done  towards  gathering  and  directing  a 
flock.  The  good  people  of  New  England  were  something  more  than  sus- 
icious  on  the  subject  of  his  success  ;  they  were  suspicious  of  the  CathoHc 
octrines.  Their  ancestors,  from  the  settlement  of  the  country,  had  been 
Breaching  against  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  their  descendants,  even  the 
most  enlightened,  felt  a  strong  impression  of  imdefined  and  undefinable  dis- 
like, if  not  hatred,  towards  every  papal  relation.  Absurd  and  foolish  legends 
>f  the  Pope  and  his  religion  were  in  common  circulation,  and  the  prejudice 
was  too  deeply  rooted  to  be  suddenly  eradicated,  or  even  opposed.  It  re- 
quired a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  world,  to  know  precisely  how  to 
meet  those  sentiments  of  a  whole  people.  Violence  and  indiscretion  would 
have  destroyed  all  hopes  of  success.  Ignorance  would  have  exposed  the 
cause  to  sarcasm  and  contempt,  and  enthusiasm,  too  manifest,  would  have 
produced  a  reaction,  that  would  have  plunged  the  infant  establishment  in 
absolute  ruin.  Dr.  Matignon  was  exactly  fitted  to  encounter  all  these  diffi. 
culties.  And  he  saw  them,  and  knew  his  task,  with  the  discernment  of  a 
shrewd  politician.  With  meekness  and  humility  he  disarmed  the  proud  ; 
with  prudence,  learning,  and  wisdom,  he  met  the  captious  and  slanderous, 
and  so  gentle  and  so  just  was  his  course,  that  even  the  censorious  forgot  to 
watch  him,  and  the  malicious  were  too  cunning  to  attack  one  armed  so 
strongly  in  honesty  For  four  years  he  sustained  the  weight  of  this  cnarge 
alone,  until  Providence  sent  him  a  coadj'i;tor  in  the  person  of  the  present 
excellent  Bishop  Cheverus,  who  seemed  made  by  natui-e,  and  fitted  by  edu- 
cation and  grace,  to  soothe  his  griefs  by  sympathy,  (for  he  too  had  suffered,) 
to  cheer  him  by  the  blandishments  of  taste  and  letters,  and  all  congenial 
pursuits  and  habits  ;  and,  in  fact,  they  were  as  far  identified  as  two  em- 
bodied minds  could  be.  These  holy  seers  pursued  their  religious  pilgrim- 
age together,  blessing  and  being  blessed,  for  more  than  twenty  years  ;  and 
the  young  Elisha  had  received  a  double  portion  of  the  spirit,  and  worn  the 
mantle  of  his  friend  and  guide,  long  before  the  sons  of  the  prophets  heard 
the  cry  of.  My  father^  my  father^  the  chariot  of  Israel  and  the  horsemen  thereof. 
May  the  survivor  find  consolation  in  the  religion  he  teaches,  and  long  be 
kept  on  his  journey,  to  bless  the  cruise  of  oil  in  the  dwellings  of  poverty  and 
widowhood,  and  to  cleanse  by  the  power  of  God  the  leprosy  of  the  sinful  soul. 

Far  from  the  sepulchre  of  "his  fathers  repose  the  ashes  of  the  good  and 
great  Dr.  Matignon ;  but  his  grave  is  not  as  among  strangers,  for  it  was  wa 
tered  by  the  tears  of  an  affectionate  flock,  and  his  memory  is  cherished  by 
all  who  value  learning,  honor  genius,  or  love  devotion. 

The  writer  of  this  brief  notice  offers  it,  as  a  famt  and  rude  memorial  only 
of  the  virtues  of  the  man  wl)ose  character  he  venerated.    Time  must  as 
suage  the  wounds  of  grief  before  he,  who  loved  him  most,  and  knew  hirat 
best,  can  attempt  his  epitaph 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  8X7 


LXXXV. 

CEITICAL  NOTICE. 

■Select  some  biograpliical  work;  state  any  impression  you 
mayTave  received  of  it  as  to  the  age,  -  the  contemporaries, 
^tlie  influence,-the  difficulties  and  advantages  of  the  au 
thor,  —  the  style  of  his  narrative,  &c 

^Example.* 

I  have  sCectea  *e  ^  of       Ben^^^  ^SpK^ois'^ZS 

a  private  company  as  fo^' ^,  ^^^th  for  persevering  and  inde- 

him  his  fame  and  ^P^Sfb  rtrand  naiTO^^  allowed 


add  to'  the  hap^  ness  of  his  friends.    Philadelphia  shows  with  de hght  he 
*  This  is  a  genuine  college  exercise,  presented  at  one  of  omr  xxniversitiea 


a  few  years  ago. 

27 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  C05IP0SITI0N. 


his  discovery  of  the  sameness  of  lightning  with  electricity,  he  rejoices  in 
the  thoucrht,  that  the  knowledge  of  this  important  fact  might  contribute 
to  the  safety  of  mankind. 

After  his  death,  even,  liis  example  is  of  great  use;  to  the  young,  hia 
self-acqun-ed  learnmg,  which  procured  for  him  the  honorary  distinctions 
ot  the  European  universities  and  philosophical  societies,  affoVds  a  practi- 
cal iliush-ation  of  the  value  of  perseverance  and  industry;  his  advanced 
years  offer  to  the  aged  an  excellent  model  for  the  occupation  of  th^u- 
time.  Ills  private  life  exliibits  a  splendid  catalogue  of  virtues ;  to  his 
temperance  he  owed  his  long  sojourn  upon  earth  ;  to  his  resolution  and 
iMustry,  his  wide-spread  fame;  to  his  sincerity  and  moderation,  the 
atrection  of  his  friends;  to  his  frugality,  the  means  of  benevolence;  and 
to  his  prudence  and  integrity,  the  esteem  and  approbation  of  his  countiy- 
men.  The  temptation  of  courts,  and  the  favors  heaped  upon  him  br 
pnnces  and  nobles,  robbed  him  of  none  of  these  virtues.  These  he  re- 
tamed  with  a  contented  mind  and  a  clear  conscience,  till  he  was  sum 
moned  to  receive  his  tinal  reward. 


LXXXVI. 

CRITICISM. 

The  foUo^Ying  criticism  by  Dr.  Blair  is  here  presented  that 
the  student  may  understand  the  principles  by  which  literary 
merit  is  to  be  estimated.  The  subject  criticised  is  No.  411 
of  the  Spectator,  wa^itten  by  Mr.  Addison  ;  of  whom.  Dr. 
Johnson  has  said  that  all  who  wish  to  write  the  EngHsh  lan- 
guage with  elegance  should  study  the  pages  of  Addison. 

"Our  sight  is  the  most  perfect,  and  most  delightful  of  all  our  sen^^es." 

1  his  sentence  is  clear,  precise,  anfl  simple.  The  author  in  a  few  plain 
words  lays  down  the  proposition,  which  he  is  going  to  iUustrate.  A  first 
sentence  should  seldom  be  long,  and  never  intricate. 

He  might  have  said,  oia- sight  is  the  most  perfect  and  the  most  delightful. 
But  m  omittmg  to  repeat  the  particle  the,  he  has  been  more  judicioul ;  for, 
as  between  perfect  and  dehghtfal  there  is  no  contrast,  such  a  repetition 
unnecessary.    He  proceeds :  ,  i  « 

,-J'ffl?iK^'^®  mind  with  the  largest  variety  of  ideas,  converses  with  its  ob 
Itf '  f    1  distance,  and  continues  the  longest  in  action,  without 

bemg  tired  or  satiated  with  its  proper  enjovment^^.'' 

This  sentence  is  remarkably  harmonious;  and  veil  constructed.  It  is  en 
tirely  perspicuous.  It  is  loaded  with  no  unnecessary  words.  That  quality 
of  a  good  sentence,  which  we  termed  its  unity,  is  here  perfectly  preserved. 
Ihe  members  of  it  also  grow,  and  rise  above  each  other  in  sound,  till  it  is 
conducted  to  one  of  the  most  harmonious  closes  which  our  lano-uaoe  ad 
mits.  It  IS  moreover  figurative  without  being  too  much  so  for  the  subiect. 
Ihere  is  no  fault  m  it  whatever,  except  this,  the  epithet  large,  which  he 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  319 

applies  to  variety,  is  more  commonly  applied  to  extent  than  to  numbei%  It 
18  plain,  however;  that  he  employed  it  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  the  woid 
which  occm-s  immediately  afterward.  chnnp 
^  «  The  sense  of  feeling  can,  indeed,  give  us  a  notion  of  extension,  shape, 
and  all  oth3r  ideas  that  enter  at  the  eye,  except  _  colors ;  but,  at  t  e  same 
time  it  is  vcrv  much  straitened  and  confined  in  its  operations,  to  tiie  num- 
ber, bulk,  and  distance  of  its  particular  objects." 

But  is  not  everv  sense  confined  as  much  as  the  sense  of  feeling,  to  the 
aumber,  bulk,  and  distance  of  its  own  objects  ?  .The  tum  o  expression  is 
also  very  inaccurate,  requiring  the  two  words,  with  regard,  \o 
after  the  word  operations,  in  order  to  make  the  sense  clear  md  intelhg  ble^ 
The  epithet  particular  seems  to  be  used  instead  oi  veoidiar ,  "f^Jf^^^ 
words,  though  often  confounded,  are  of  very  different  import.  Particular 
is  opposed  tS  ge^ieraL;  peculiar  stands  opposed  to  what  is  possessed  m  com- 

"^''Our^sigM^^^^       designed  to  supply  all  these  defects  and  may  be  con 
sidered  aslmore  dehcati  and  diffusive  kind  of  touch,  that  spreads  itself 
ovei- an  ^nfiiSe  multitude  of  bodies,  comprehends  the  largest,  figures,  and 
brino-s  into  our  reach  some  of  the  most  remote  parts  of  the  universe. 
'  Thfs  sentence  is  perspicuous,  graceful  well  arranged,  and  highly  ^ 
Its  construction  is  so  similar  to  that  of  the  second  sentence  that  l  acUtii^^^ 
mediately  succeeded  it,  the  ear  would  have  been  sensible  ot  a  faulty  monot- 
ony.   But  the  interposition  of  a  period  prevents  this  ettect.  . 

"It  is  this  sense  which  furnishes  the  imagination  with  its  ideas  ;  so  that, 
by  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination  or  fancy  (which  I  shall  use  pi;omisca 
oLly)  I  here  mean  such  as  arise  from  visible  objects,  either  when  we  l  ave 
them  actuaUy  in  our  view,  or  when  we  call  up  their  ideas  into  our  mmds 
by  paintings,  statues,  descriptions,  or  any  the  like  occasion. 

^The  parenthesis  in  the  middle  of  this  sentence  is  clear.  It  should 
have  been,  terms  which  I  shall  use  promiscuously;  since  the  verb  does 
norreMe'to  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  but  to  the  tern,s  ^2,^  0^ 
imagmation,  which  were  meant  to  be  synonymous.  To  call  a  pa  ntmg  oi 
a  stitue  an  occasion,  is  not  accurate;  nor  is  it  very  proper  to  speak  ot 
,alS^^^ ideas  by  occasions.    The  common  phrase,  any  such  means,  would 

^''u\^e'?aimoTiSS'have  a  single  image  in  the  fancy,  that  did  not  make 
Its  first  entiance  through  the  sight;  but  we  have  the  power  of  retainmg, 
aUeriiSr  an  1  compounding  thosS  images  which  we  have  once  received,  into 
:  t  e  varrdies  o?picture\nd  vision,'that  are  most  ^g'-^eaWe  o  the  jag^^^ 
ation-  for,  by  this  faculty,  a  man  in  a  dungeon  is  capable  of  enteitainmg 
nimselfwith^scenes  and"^  landscapes  more  beautiful  than  any  that  can  be 
found  in  the  whole  compass  of  nature."  . 

In  one  member  of  this  sentence  there  is  an  inaccuracy  m  syntax.  lu  is 
nroper  to  say,  altering  and  compounding  those  images  which  toe  ha,ve  once 
Tecfived,  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision.  But  we  cannot  with 
ZoM^\2iy.-etainingthem  into  all  the  varieties;  yet  the  arrangement 
?eqmres  this  construction.  This  error  might  have  been  avoided  by  arrang- 
inrthe  nassacre  in  the  following  manner:  "  We  have  the  power  ot  re  ainmg 
those  images  which  we  have  once  received;  and  f  .^l^^^'V,^"  t^p 
pounding  them  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision."  Ihe  latter 
part  of  tlie  sentence  is  clear  and  elegant. 

^  "  Theve  are  few  words  in  the  English  language,  which  are  employed  m 
a  mere  loose  and  uncircumscribed  sense  than  those  oi  the  fancy  and  the 

""""EfclTt^^vhe^^  ^ome  assertion  of  consequence  '^\^'^'{^''^^'^\'''^^Z^n^ 
words,  tt  is  and  there  are,  ought  to  be  avoided,  as  redundant  and  enfeebling. 
The  two  first  words  of  this  sentence,  therefore,  should  have  been  omitted 
IhQ  aa-ticle  prefixed  to  fancy  and  imagination  ought  also  to  have  been 


320 


AIDS  TO   ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOK. 


omitted,  since  he  does  not  mean  the  powers  of  the  fancy  and  the  imaginO' 
tion,  but  the  words  only.  The  sentence  should  have  run  thus :  "  Few 
words  in  the  English  language  are  employed  in  a  more  loose  and  uncir 
cumscribed  sense  than  fancy  and  imagination." 

"  I  therefore  thought  it  necessary  to  fix  and  determine  the  notion  of  these 
two  words,  as  I  intend  to  make  use  of  them  in  the  thread  of  my  following 
speculations,  that  the  reader  may  conceive  rightly  what  is  the  subject 
which  I  proceed  upon. 

The  words  fix  and  determine^  though  they  may  appear  so,  are  not  synony 
mous.  We  fix^  what  is  loose ;  we  determine^  what  is  2C7icircivmscribed. 
They  may  be  viewed,  therefore,  as  applied  here  with  peculiar  delicacy. 

The  notion  of  these  words ^  is  rather  harsh,  and  is  not  so  commonly  used 
as  the  meaning  of  these  words.  As  I  intend  to  make  use  of  them  in  th6 
thread  of  my  speciilations.,  is  evidently  faulty.  A  sort  of  metaphor  is  im 
properly  mixed  with  words  in  their  literal  sense.  TJie  subject  which  I  pro- 
ceed %Lpon  is  an  ungraceful  close  of  a  sentence ;  it  should  have  been,  the 
subject  iipo7i  which  I  proceed. 

"  I  must  therefore  desire  him  to  remember,  that,  by  the  pleasures  of  im 
agination,  I  mean  only  such  pleasures  as  arise  originally  from  sight,  and 
that  I  divide  these  pleasures  into  two  kinds." 

This  sentence  begins  in  a  manner  too  similar  to  the  preceding.  I  mean 
only  such  pleasures,  the  adverb  07ily  is  not  in  its  proper  place.  It  is  not  in 
tended  here  to  qualify  the  verb  mean,  but  such  pleasures  ;  and  ought  there 
fore  to  be  placed  immediately  after  the  latter. 

"  My  design  being,  first  of  all,  to  discourse  of  those  primary  pleasures  of 
the  imagination,  which  entirely  proceed  from  such  objects  as  are  before 
our  eyes ;  and,  in  the  next  place,  to  speak  of  those  secondary  pleasures  of 
the  imagination,  which  flow  from  the  ideas  of  visible  objects,  when  the  ob 
iects  are  not  actually  before  the  eye,  but  are  called  up  into  our  memories, 
or  formed  into  agreeable  visions  of  things,  that  are  either  absent  or  fic 
titious." 

Neatness  and  brevity  are  peculiarly  requisite  in  the  division  of  a  subject. 
This  sentence  is  somewhat  clogged  by  a  tedious  phraseology.  My  design 
being,  first  of  all,  to  discotirse — in  the  next  place  to  speaJc  of- — S7ich  objects  as 
are  before  07ir  eyes — things  that  are  either  absent  or  fictitious.  Several  worda 
might  have  been  omitted,  and  the  style  made  more  neat  and  compact. 

"  The  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  taken  in  their  full  extent,  are  not  so 
gross  as  those  of  sense,  nor  so  refined  as  those  of  the  understanding." 

This  sentence  is  clear  and  elegant. 

"  The  last  are  indeed  more  preferable,  because  they  are  founded  on  sorrxe 
new  knowledge  or  improvement  in  the  mind  of  man ;  yet  it  must  be  con 
fessed,  that  those  of  the  imagination  are  as  great  and  as  transporting  as  tk"^ 
other." 

The  phrase,  more  preferable,  is  so  palpable  an  inaccuracy,  that  we  wonde. 
how  it  could  escape  the  observation  of  Mr.  Addison.  The  proposition,  con 
tained  in  the  last  member  of  this  sentence,  is  neither  clearly  nor  eleganth 
expressed.  It  must  be  confessed,  that  tltose  of  tJte  imagination  are  as  grea^ 
and  as  transporting  as  the  other.  In  the  beginning  of  this  sentence  he  ha€ 
called  the  pleasures  of  the  understanding  the  last;  and  he  concludes  witl 
observing,  that  those  of  the  imagination  are  as  great  and  transporting  at 
the  other.  Beside  that  the  other  makes  not  a  proper  contrast  with  the  last 
it  is  left  doubtful  whether  by  the  other  are  meant  the  pleasures  of  the  nn 
derstanding,  or  the  pleasures  of  sense  ;  though  without  doubt  it  was  intend 
ed  to  refer  to  the  pleasures  of  the  understanding  only. 

'"A  i\p,autiful  prospect  delights  the  soul  as  much  as  a  demonstration, 
and  a  description  in  Homer  has  charmed  more  readers  than  a  chapter  in 
Aristotle."  \ 

This  is  a  g6od  illustration  of  what  he  had  been  asserting,  and  is  expressed 
with  that  elega.nce,  by  which  Mr.  Addison  is  distinguished. 


\ 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOK. 


«  Besides,  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination  have  this  advantage  abova 
those  of  the  understanding,  that  tliey  are  more  obvious  and  more  easy  tobv 
required." 

This  sentence  is  unexceptionable. 

"  It  is  but  openino-  the  eve,  and  the  scene  enters.  . 
Though  this  is  hvely  and  picturesque,  yet  we  must  remark  a  small  mac 
curacy.    K  scene  cannot  be  said  to  enter;  an  actor  enters;  but  a  seen* 

^ S^ptlSinselves  on  the  fancy,  with  very  little  attention  of 

"^^^^^rSf.^^^  to  those  pleasures  of  th. 

imagination  of  which  the  author  is  treating. 

''We  are  strucl<,  we  know  not  how,  with  the  syrnmetry  of,  ^ny  th,n|  W9 
see  ;  and  immediately  assent  to  the  beauty  of^an  object,  without  mquirmj, 
into  the  particular  causes  and  occasions  of  it."  ^,.nr.riVfv  ha 

We  a^^.^^itothe  truth  of  a  proposition  ;  but  cannot  with  P^oPJ^ty  be 
said      assent  to  the  bea^Uy  of  an  object    Ix.  ^he  cone  usion,  ^a^^^^^ 
occasioyis  are  superfluous  words;  and  the  pronoun     is  m  some  measure 

^"^'^A  man  of  a  polite  imagination  is  let  into  a  great  many  pleasures  that 
the  vulgar  are  not  capable  of  receiving."  -^o^i-r^c+m-n 
The  term  poKte  is  oftener  applied  to  manners,  than  to  the  magmation. 
The  use  of  tlat  instead  of  which,  is  too  common  with  Mr,  Addison  Ex- 
cept in  cases  where  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  repetition,  which  is  piefeiable 
to  that  and  is  undoubtedly  so  in  the  present  instance.  . 

''  He  can  converse  with  a  picture,  and  find  an  agreeable  companion  m  a 
statue  He  meets  with  a  secret  refreshment  in  a  description;  and  often 
feds  t  g7eatS  satisfaction  in  the  prospect  of  fields  f"^  meadows  than 
another  does  in  the  possession.  It  gives  him  indeed  a  kind  of  property  m 
everv  thin  '  he  sees?  and  makes  the  most  rude  uncultivated  parts  of  nature 
adiifn  ste^°to  his  pleasures :  so  that  he  looks  upon  the  world,  as  it  were,  in 
aShi  ligh?,  and^  discovers  in  it  a  multitude  of  charms  that  conceal  them 
selves  from  the  generality  of  mankind." 

Thl  sentence^is  easy,  flowing,  and  harmonious    ^e  must  however  ob 
serve  a  slio-ht  inaccuracy.    It  gives  him  a  hind  of  property— to  this  it  tiiere 
s  no  Ltfeedent  in  the'^vhole^paragraph.    To  discover  its  connexion  w^^^ 
must  look  back  to  the  third  sentence  preceding,  which  begins  J^f^^^^'^ 
of  a  polite  imagination.    This  phrase,  pohte  imagination,  ^nly  an- 

tecedent  to  which  it  can  refer;  and  even  this  is  not  a  proper  antecedent, 
since  it  stands  in  the  genitive  case  as  the  qualification  on  y  of  a  man. 
^' The  e  are,  indeed,  but  very  few  who  know  how  to  be  idle  and  mnocen. 
orhavearehsh  of  aAy  pleasures  that  are  not  criminal:  every  diversion 
?Ly  take  is  at  the  ex/ense  of  some  one  virtue  or  another,  and  their  very 
first  step  out  of  business  is  into  vice  or  folly." 

This  sentence  is  truly  elegant,  miisical,  and  correct.  ;^„nr>Pnt 
"  A  man  should  endeavor,  therefore,  to  make  tlie  sphere  9f,hfJJ0«^e"5 
pleasures  as  wide  as  possible,  that  he  may  retire  in  o  ^hem  with  safeg,  a 
find  in  them  such  a  satisfaction  as  a  wise  man  would  not  biusti  to  taKe. 
Tins  also  is  a  good  sentence  and  exposed  to  no  objection.  _ 
''  Of  this  natufe  are  those  of  the  imagination,  which  do  not  require  such 
a  bent  of  thought  as  is  necessary  to  our  more  serious  employments  ;  noi ,  at 
the  same  timef  suffer  the  mind  to  sink  into  that 

which  are  apt  to  accompany  our  more  sensual  delights  ;  ^ut  like  a  gentle 
exercise  to  the  faculties,  awaken  from  sloth  and  idleness,  without  puttmg 

them  upon  any  labor  or  difliculty.;'  r^ffi,:.  ..ntvvP  «avs  he  art 

The  beginning  of  this  sentence  is  incorrect.  Ofthisnatne,  sjiy^  ne,  art 
thosToftle  imlgmation.  It  might  be  asked,  of  what  J^.^  ^^^^^^^ 
preceding  sentence  had  not  described  the  nature  of  any  class  of  pleasures. 


822 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


He  had  said  that  it  Avas  every  man's  duty  to  make  the  sphere  of  his  inno- 
cent pleasures  as  extensive  as  possible,  that  within  this  sphere  he  might 
Qnd  a  safe  retreat  and  laudable  satisfaction.  The  transition,  therefore,  is 
loosely  made.  It  Avould  have  been  better,  if  he  had  said,  "  this  advantage 
we  gain,"  or  "  this  satisfaction  we  enjoy,"  by  means  of  the  pleasures  of  the 
Imagination.    The  rest  of  the  sentence  is  correct. 

"  We  might  here  add,  that  the  pleasures  of  the  fancy  are  more  conducive 
to  health  than  those  of  the  understanding,  which  are  worked  out  by  dint 
of  thinking,  and  attended  with  too  violent  a  labor  of  the  brain. 

Worked  out  by  dint  of  thhildng^  is  a  phrase  which  borders  too  nearly  on 
the  style  of  common  conversation,  to  be  admitted  into  polished  composition. 

"  Delightful  scenes,  whether  in  nature,  painting,  or  poetry,  have  a  kindly 
influence  on  the  body,  as  well  as  the  mind,  and  not  only  serve  to  clear  and 
brighten  the  imagination,  but  are  able  to  disperse  grief  and  melancholy, 
and  to  set  the  animal  spirits  in  pleasing  and  agreeable  motions.  For  this 
reason  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  in  his  Essay  iipon  Health,  has  not  thought  it 
improper  to  prescribe  to  his  reader  a  poem  or  a  prospect,  where  he  particu- 
larly dissuades  him  from  knotty  and  subtile  disquisitions,  and  advises  him 
to  pursue  studies  that  fill  the  mind  with  splendid  and  illustrious  objects,  as 
histories,  fables,  and  contemplations  of  nature." 

In  the  latter  of  these  two  periods  a  member  is  out  of  its  place.  Where 
he  particularly  dissuades  Jdrn  from  knotty  and  subtile  disquisitions^  ought 
to  precede  has  not  thought  it  improper  to  prescribe,  6fC- 

*•  I  have  in  this  paper,  by  way  to  introduction,  settled  the  notion  of  those 
pleasures  of  the  imagination,  which  are  the  subject  of  my  present  under 
taking,  and  endeavored  by  several  considerations  to  recommend  to  my 
readers  the  pursuit  of  those  pleasures :  I  shall  in  my  next  paper  examine 
the  several  soiirces  from  whence  these  pleasures  are  derived." 

These  two  concluding  sentences  furnish  examples  of  proper  collocation 
of  circumstances.  We  formerly  showed  that  it  is  difficult  so  to  dispose 
them,  as  not  to  embarrass  the  principal  subject.  Had  the  following  inci- 
dental circumstances,  by  way  of  introduction — hy  several  considerations — in 
this  paper—in  the  next  paper,  placed  in  any  other  situation,  the  sen- 
tence would  have  been  neither  so  neat,  nor  so  clear,  as  it  is  on  the  present 
construction. 


Lxxxvn. 

BIOGRAPHICAL  SICETCH. 

Exam'ple. 

BIANCA  CAPELLO. 

Bianca,  descended  from  the  noble  house  of  the  Capelli,  at  Venice,  and 
daughter  of  Bartolomeo  Capello,  was  born  in  1545.  Her  childhood  and 
early  youth  passed  in  the  retirement  of  her  father's  palace,  where,  accord- 
ing to  the  custom  of  the  country,  she  conversed  only  with  her  family  and 
relations".  „  ,  .  . 

Opposite  to  the  palace  of  the  Capelli  was  the  house  of  the  balviati, 
where,  in  1565,  Bianca,  having  entered  her  twentieth  year,  attracted,  by 
the  charms  of  her  person,  the  attention  of  a  young  I'lorentine,  by  the 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


323 


nameof  Pietro  Buonaventm-i,  ^yhose  birth  was  f  ^f^^^'X^.^^jJ^^^^^^^^^^ 
in  the  family  of  the  Salviati  in  the  capacity  of  a  clerk.  _  I'^deUed  more  to 
nature  than  to  fortune,  possessing  a  tine  person,  msmuatmg  ^i^a^^^ers 
and  an  aspiring-  temper,  Fietro  secured  the  -f^'^^^^f^fl^^^^^^^^^^^ 
were  privately  married.  It  is  not  our  present  purpose  to  pui.ue  the  nar 
Sive^of  her  adventures,  which  linally  led  to  a  separation  from  her  hus^ 
band,  nor  the  story  of  her  connexion  with  the  liousa-of  Med  ci  Leavmg 
these  details  to  the  historian,  we  propose  to  present  merely  tliose  tiaits  ot 
her  character  by  which  she  was  peculiarly  distinguished. 

On  a  survey  of  the  life  of  Bianca  Capello,  whatever  may  ^^^^^^^^ 
the  qualities  of  her  heart,  which,  it  must  be  confessed  are  doubttul,  it  is 
mpSbie  not  to  be  struck  with  the  powers  of  lier  f^^f^^^J^^^^^^^^^ 
innumerable  obstacles,  she  maintained,  undimmished,  thiough  life,  ^^at 
aTce^dancy  which  her'personal  charms  had  first  given  her  over  the  affec- 
tions of  a  capricious  prince.    The  determination  and  perseverance  w  th 
which  she  prosecuted  her  plans,  sufficiently  testify  her  energy  and  talents . 
^  in  effectfngthe  end  proposed,  she  Avas  little  ^^rupjilous  respecting  the 
means,  the  irPlian  character,  the  ,  circumstances  t^^^^X''.iSLf  and 
vantages  attending  her  entrance  into  the  worid,  subjected  to  aitihce  and 
entangled  in  fraucf,  must  not  be  forgotten.    Brought  up  m  retirement  and 
obscurity,  thrown  at  once  into  the  most  trying  situations,  her  prudence 
her  policy,  her  self-government,  her  knowledge  of  the  human  mina,  and 
the  means  of  subjecting  it,  are  not  less  rare  than  admirable.    She  pos^ 
sessed  singular  penetration  in  discerning  characters,  and  the  weaknesses 
of  those  with  whom  she  conversed,  which  she  skilfully  adapted  to  her 
purposes.  By  an  eloquence,  soft,  insinuating,  and  powerful,  she  prevailed 
Sver  her  friends;  while,  by  ensnaring  them  in  their  own  devices,  she 
made  her  enemies  subservient  to  her  views.    Such  was  the  fascination  of 
her  manners,  that  the  prejudices  of  those  byAvhom  she  was  hated,  yielded, 
in  hpr  presence,  to  admiration  and  dehght:  nothing  seemed  too  arduous 
for  her  talents ;  inexhaustible  in  resource,  whatever  she  undertook  she 
found  means  to  accomplish.    If  she  was  an  impassioned  character,  she 
was  uniformly  animated  by  ambition.    In  her  first  engagement  with 
Buonaventuri,  she  seems  to  have  been  influenced  by  a  restless  enterpris- 
ino-  temper,  disgusted  with  inactivity,  rather  than  by  love :  through  every 
scene  of  her  connexion  with  the  duke,  her  motives  are  sufficiently  obvious. 
With  a  disposition  hke  that  of  Bianca,  sensibility  and  tenderness,  the 
appropriate  virHes  of  the  sex,  are  not  to  be  expected.    Real  greatness 
has  iA  it  a  character  of  simpUcity,  with  which  subtlety  and  craft  are 
wholly  incompatible  :  the  genius  of  Bianca  was  such  as  htted  her  to  take 
a  part  in  political  intrigues,  to  succeed  in  court%,  and  rise  to  the  pinnacle 
of  power ;  but,  stained  with  cruelty,  and  debased  by  falsehood  if  her  tal- 
ents excite  admiration,  they  produce  no  esteem ;  and^  while  her  accom- 
plishments dazzle  the  mind,  thev  fail  to  interest  the  heart.  _ 

Majestic  in  stature,  beautiful  in  her  person,  animated,  eloquent,  and  m 
sinuating,  she  commanded  all  hearts  ;  a  power  of  which  the  tranquillity 
and  snence  of  her  own  enabled  her  -to  avail  herself  to  the  utmost.  lU 
health  impaired  her  beauty  at  an  eariy  period  ;  many  portraits  ot  her  re- 
main in  all  of  which  she  is  represented  as  grand-duchess,  when  the  first 
bloom  of  her  charms  had  faded.  A  beautiful  portrait  of  her,  m  the  ducal 
robes,  is  preserved  in  the  palace  of  the  Capelh,  at  Padua ;  several  are 
likewise  to  be  found  in  the  Palazzo  Pelti,  at  Florence;  and  one,  also,  said 
to  be  still  superior,  in  Palazzo  Caprara,  at  Bologna. 


324 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


LXXXYin. 

COLLEGE  EXEECISES.* 

The  preceding  Tessons,  it  is  thought,  contain  most,  if  not  all, 
of  the  principles  necessary  to  be  understood  by  the  student  to 
prepare  him  for  the  performance  of  such  exercises  as  are 
generally  prescribed  in  an  academic  course.  The  followhag 
specimens  of  the  exercises  of  those  to  whom  academic  honors 
have  been  awarded,  are  presented,  with  the  hope  that  they 
may  be  useful  to  those  who  may  hereafter  have  similar  exer- 
cises to  perform. 

CONEEKENCE,  COLLOQUY,  AND  DIALOGUE. 

A  Conference  is  a  discoursing  between  two  or  more,  for  the  purpose  of 
instruction,  consultation,  or  deliberation  ;  or,  it  may,  in  a  technical  sense, 
be  defined,  an  examination  of  a  subject  by  comparison.  It  is  a  species 
of  conversation,  and  is  generally  confined  to  particular  subjects  and  des- 
criptions of  persons. 

A  Dialogue  signifies  a  speech  between  two  persons.  It  is  mostly  ficti- 
tious, and  is  written  as  if  it  were  spoken.  It  is  always  formal  and  contains 
iin  assertion  or  question  with  a  reply  and  a  rejoinder. 

A  Colloquy  is  a  species  of  dialogue.  It  literally  signifies,  the  act  of 
talking  together  and  is  not  confined  to  any  particvdar  number  of  persons 
nor  subjects. 

Example  of  a  Theme. 

"Est  Deus  ill  nobis."   Ovid,  Lib.  I. 

Metaphysical  speculations  are,  of  all  others,  the  most  wild  and  most  ex- 
posed to  error.  The  relation  between  volition  and  action,  mind  and  body. 


*  The  specimens  and  models  here  presented,  are  take^^y  the  consent 
of  the  resDcctive  authors,  from  the  files  of  one  of  our  most  respectable  uni 
varsities. "  To  the  highly  respected  President  of  that  university,  the  author 
is  greatly  indebted  for  the  kind  facihties  rendered,  by  which  he  was  enabled 
to  examine  the  files  of  that  institution,  and  to  select  such  as  he  had  been 
permitted  to  copy.  He  does  not,  however,  consider  himself  authorized 
more  particularly  to  name  the  institution  nor  its  presiding  officer.  It  is 
clue,  also,  to  the  gentlemen  whose  juvenile  exercises  he  has  been  permitted 
here  to  present,  to  state,  that  their  reluctant  permission  has  been  given  with 
tlie  understanding  that  their  names  v>^ill  not  .be  mentioned  in  connexion 
with  the  exercises.  The  question  may,  perhaps,  be  asked,  why  exercises 
of  this  kind  are  presented  at  all.  To  this  the  author  replies,  that  a  know- 
ledge of  what  has  been  done  on  any  given  occasion  cannot  be  without  its 
use  to  those  who  are  called  upon  to  exert  their  talents  on  any  similar  occa 
sion ;  and  if  any  of  the  following  exercises  should  be  considered  as  speci 
mens,  rather  than  models,  the  author  can  only  say,  that  he  deems  examples 
of  this  kind,  which  can  be  emulated  by  the  student,  more  encouraging  than 
faultless  models.  It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  infuse  that  spirit  whicii 
.haU  adopt  as  its  motto,  —  "  Excelsior:' 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


325 


the  decisive  influence  of  the  former  on  the  motions  of  the  latter,  and  how 
this  intercourse  obtains,  are  subtleties,  the  investigation  of  which  has  ever 
baffled  the  ingenuity  of  philosophers.  Nor  is  reasoning  on  this  subject 
in  any  respect  conclusive.  It  sets  out  from  hypothethis,  and,  instead  of 
leading  to  any  just  conclusions,  usually  leaves  the  inquirer  in  a  labyrinth 
of  doubt. 

.  In  spite  of  these  obstacles,  however,  there  is  something  in  the  mind  of 
man  that  takes  a  delight  in  diving  into  these  mysteries  ;  a  curiosity  which 
is  always  alive  and  restless,  grasping  at  some  hidden  truth ;  a  fancy  that 
is  prone  to  explore  an  unknown  path,  —  that  loves  to  float  in  whimsical 
reveries.    "  Est  Deus  in  nobis." 

On  our  first  introduction  to  this  world,  whether  our  minds  are  free  from 
ideas  and  vacant,  "  like  a  piece  of  white  paper,"  as  Mr.  Locke  quaintly 
phrases  itfand,  if  this  be  the  fact,  whether,  as  originally  cast  by  the  crea- 
tor, they  differ  as  widely  in  quality,  as  the  various  kinds  of  white  paper 
from  the  mill;  —  are  questions  which  have  not  yet  been  determined. 
When  we  contemplate  society,  we  are  struck  with  the  diversities  of  char- 
acter Avhich  it  discloses.  We  ask  ourselves,  how  it  happens,  that  such 
varieties  of  genius  exist;  how  it  is,  that  one  person  has  a  mathematical, 
another  a  poetical  turn  of  mind;  that  one  has  an  imagination,  that 
"  bounds  from  earth  to  heaven,  and  sports  in  the  clouds,''  and  another 
possesses  a  mind  that  gropes  in  the  deepest  recesses  of  philosophy,  and 
learns  to  conceive  the  most  abstruse  truth.  ^  We  wonder  for  a  while,  and 
presently  conclude,  that  all  the  peculiarities'of  each  mind  are  coeval  with 
its  existence,  and  impressed  by  the  Deity. 

For  my  o-\vn  part,  although'l  consider  these  speculations  to  be  as  unin- 
portant,  as  they  are  doubtful,  they  frequently  find  an  indulgence  in  my 
mind.  Nor  are  they  altogether  fruitless.  They  answer  the  purpose  of  a 
romance.  They  amuse  the  imagination,  and  occupy  the  vacant  thought 
of  a  leisure  hour.  I  am  inclined  to  the  belief,  that,  as  our  minds  may  bo 
considered  to  emanate  from  the  same  creative  spirit,  they  bear  a  nearer 
resemblance  to  each  other  than  we  are  apt  to  imagine.  It  is  probable 
that  our  minds  are  all  equally  endowed,  and,  at  first,  are  precisely  the 
same.  That  they  are  susceptible  of  like  impressions.  And  if  a  case  be 
supposed,  where  two  persons  could  be  brought  up  in  such  a  manner,  that 
every  external  circumstance,  having  the  leas^  eflect  on  the  senses,  could 
be  precisely  the  same  to  each,  that  their  dispositions  would  he  in  all  res 
pects  similar ;  indeed,  the  men  would  be  perfectly  alike.  This  hypothesis 
is  reconcilable  with  the  maxim  (under  existing  circumstances)  that  no 
two  persons  were  ever  in  every  respect  alike.  For,  in  the  earliest  state  of 
the  mind,  it  is  so  susceptible  of  impressions,  that  the  slightest  circum- 
stances vary  its  direction  and  character.  Frivolous  causes  produce  the 
most  important  and  lasting  effects.  Whence,  we  may,  readily  account  for 
the  numberless  shades  of  character,  as  resulting,  not  from  an  original 
difference  in  minds,  but  from  the  secret  operation  of  physical  causes. 

It  is  curious  to  observe  the  relation  between  the  senses  of  seeing  and 
hearing,  and  the  mind,  and  how  sensibly  the  imperfections  of  the  former 
tend  to  sharpen  the  faculties  of  the  latter.  So  uniform  has  this  rule  held 
within  the  circle  of  ray  own  acquaintance,  that  I  am  apt  to  conceive  one's 
intellectual  powers  merely  from  a  knowledge  of  his  faculties  of  sight. 
One  who  is  near-sighted,  for  example,  usually  possesses  mental  powers 
that  are  clear  and  nervous.  In  him,  on  the  contrary,  whose  vision  is 
bounded  ordy  by  the  horizon,  we  should  look  for  a  mind  capable  of  pleas- 

28 


326 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  TO  COMPOSITION. 


ing  in  the  arts  of  poetry  and  fiction ;  for  he  embraces  at  a  glance  all  the 
beauties  of  nature.  A  retentive  memory  is  also  naturally  assQciated  with 
one  who  hears  and  sees  with  difficulty.  Thus,  by  a  little  relinement,  (I 
think  reasonably,)  we  may  refer  the  different  faculties  of  the  mind  to  the 
constraction  of  the  senses.  The  different  bearings  of  these  causes  are 
obvious.  They  prove  the  importance  of  acquiring  a  habit  of  close  think- 
ing. He  who  hears  and  sees  with  difficulty,  treasures  up  what  he  learns 
with  care.  A  partial  blindness  invites  contemplation.  A  man  is  not 
liable  to  have  his  attention  distracted  by  frivolous  events.  They  are  in 
some  measure  shut  out.    He  finds  a  study  everywhere. 

Example  of  a  Conference.^ 

Public  Amusements,  Splendid  Religious  Ceremonies,  Warlike  i^eparattons 
and  Display,  and  a  Rigid  Police,  as  means  of  Despotic  Power. 

PUBLIC  AMUSEMENTS. 

Various  as  are  the  means  by  which  an  individual  may  acquire  despotic 
poAver  over  a  nation ;  none  are  more  easy  in  their  application,  or  more 
effectual  in  their  results,  than  the  mere  act  of  providing  and  supporting 
what,  in  such  cases,  are  most  erroneously  called  public  amusements. 
Public  amusements !  yes,  —  let  but  your  t}Tant,  who  would  lord  it  with 
impunity,  open  his  theatres,  provide  his  shows,  and  procure  every  thing 
that  can  please  the  fancy,  and  delight  the  eyes  and  ears  of  the  people, 
then  he  may  rest  in  security,  for  those  whom  he  would  make  slaves  are 
placed  upon  the  broad  road  that  leadeth  backward  to  darkness,  but  never 
onwards  to  light.  They  may  pause  at  first,  but  the  fatal  charm  soon  over- 
comes their  strength,  and,  blind  to  all  evil  consequences,  they  plunge 
madly  on  in  pursuit  of  present  pleasure. 

It  'is  easy  to  show  how  the  people  are  so  readily  ar  J  so  fatally  de 
ceived,  —  it  requires  few  examples  and  little  reasoning  to  prove  that 
temptations  are  strong,  indulgence  ruinous,  the  truth  is  written  Avitliin, 
.  egibly  upon  our  hearts. 

I  cannot,  however,  pass  over  this  subject  without  calling  your  attention 
to  one  of  the  most  instructive,  the  most  splendid,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
most  appalling  portions  of  history,  the  latter  days  of  the  Eonian  Empire. 
We  have  before  us  a  nation  that  has  raised  itself  from  obscurity  to  gran- 
deur. —  that  has  exchanged  the  name  of  exiles  and  vagabonds  for  the 
proud  title  of  conquerors  and  sovereigns  of  the  world ;  yet,  in  this  very 
people,  in  their  proudest  day,  we  can  trace  the  seeds  of  corruption. 

They  had  early  acquu-ed  a  taste  for  public  amusements,  that  had  ever 
been  gaining  strength,  and  that  was  soon  to  be  employed  as  the  certain 
means  of  working  their  destruction. 

The  Roman  frame  retained  as  yet  too  much  of  its  former  strength  and 
vigor  to  be  roughly  handled.  An  attempt  to  force  chains  upon  it  would 
have  called  forth  a  third  Brutus  full  of  the  fire  and  patriotism  of  his  an- 
cestors. They  who  aimed  at  the  imperial  purple,  knew  this,  and,  avoiding 
all  violence,  sought  to  accomplish  their  designs  by  craft  and  subtlety 
Roman  citizens,  in  their  amusements,  had  already  reached  the  limits, 
which  cannot  be  passed  with  impunity ;  the  only  work  that  remained  for 


*  One  part  only  of  this  Conference  is  nresented. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


327 


tyranny  was  to  lead  them  beyond  these  limits,  and  to  foster  their  grooving 
carelessness  and  inattention  to  their  dearest  interests.  This  seep  was 
soon  taken.  Theatres  were  opened  in  all  quarters  of  the  city,  loaded 
with  eveiy  embellishment  that  the  imagination  could  suggest,  or  that  un- 
bounded wealth  could  procure.  We  need  not  enter  into  a  detail  of  these 
amusements ;  it  sufliceth  our  purpose  to  point  out  how  readily  the  people 
fell  into  the  snare,  and  how  speedily  and  entire  was  the  rain  that  followed. 
As  had  been  rightly  conjectured,  the  people  soon  gathered  in  crowds  to 
these  exhibitions, — they  passed  almost  their  whole  lives  within  the  walls 
of  the  circus,  utterly  regardless  of  all  that  was  transacted  in  the  world 
without. 

Those  who  had  made  tliis  deadly  preparation,  who  had  tempted  a  na- 
tion to  its  ruin,  now  hastened  to  improve  the  opportunities  they  had 
acquired.  Not  in  secresy  and  fear,  but  openly,  and  with  full  confidence, 
they  proceeded  to  fasten  their  chains  upon  a  slumbering  people.  And 
histoiw  informs  us  how  complete  was  their  success,  — "  Rome,  Rome  im- 
perialj^  bows  her  to  the  shock,"  —  the  work  of  her  slavery  was  finished,  — 
the  entrance  of  the  Goth  into  her  gates  was  a  mere  change  of  masters, 
for  she  long  before  had  fallen  and  was  conquered. 

The  case  we  have  Just  cited  is  a  remarkable  one,  —  few  events  in  his- 
tory can  compare  with  it,  —  yet,  for  all  that,  it  is  not  to  be  rejected  as  an 
unf'air  and  too  highly  colored  illustration  of  the  trath  of  our  positions. 
There  is  nothing  in  it  unnatural,  there  is  nothing  improbable,  and  should 
the  like  circumstances  at  any  time  occur,  I  had  almost  said  a  child  might 
predict  the  rain  that  wotild  ensue. 

When  it  can  be  shown  how  business  and  pleasure,  attention  and  remiss- 
ness, can  go  hand  in  hand  together :  in  short,  when  we  shall  see  a  nation 
utterly  devoted  to  amusements,  and,  at  the  same  time,  awake  to  all  its  in- 
terests, then  we  may  be  ready  to  give  our  example  and  positions  to  the 
wind.  • 

Example  of  a  Colloquy.* 

Difference  of  Manners  in  Ancient  Rome  and  Modern  Civilized  States 

To  a  careful  and  attentive  observer  of  human  nature,  the  history  of 
mankind  presents  an  interesting  and  instractive  but  mournful  picture. 
It  teaches  him  that  man  is  everywhere  the  same ;  but  however  the  picture 
may  be  varied  by  circumstances,  however  different  the  light  in  which  it  is 
viewed,  the  leading  features  remain  ever  the  same.  In  no  portion  of  an- 
cient history  are  we  more  strack  with  this  important  fact  than  in  that  of 
Rome.  In  considering  the  manners  of  that  people,  great  care  should  be 
taken  that  we  do  not  permit  the  classical  associations  of  our  boyhood  to 
give  us  a  too  favorable  opinion  of  their  character ;  and  again,  that  we  do 
not  run  into  the  opposite,  but  less  probable  error,  of  depreciating  their  real 
worth.  Cold,  indeed,  must  be  the  heart,  and  dull  the  undei'Standing,  that 
can  contemplate  unmoved  the  history  of  the  Eternal  City,  which,  after 
all,  has  done  its  part  towards  communicating  to  the  world  civilization  and 
ohilosophy  It  requires  no  extraordinary  stretch  of  the  imagination  to 
marshal  before  us,  in  patriotic  array,  those  venerable  magistrates,  who, 
S-anquilly  seated  in  their  curule  chairs,  defied  the  fury  of  Brennus  and 


*  One  part  only  of  this  Colloquy  is  presented. 


828 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


his  barbarian  hordes ;  or  to  hear  Cicero  declaiming  with  honest  indign» 
tion  against  the  vices  and  insolence  of  Anthony  and  VeiTes.  Yet,  our 
admiration  must  gradually  subside,  when  Ave  reflect,  that  the  gloiy  vriih 
which  they  were  surrounded,  was  purchased  by  the  misery  and  degrada- 
tion of  milHons.  Did  Ave  see  the  Eomans  in  their  true  colors,  Ave  should 
perceive  that  they  Avere  in  reality  a  selfish,  pei-fidious,  cruel,  and  supersti- 
tious race  of  barbarians,  endued  Avith  the  scanty  and  doubtful  virtues  of 
savage  life,  but  deformed  by  more  than  its  ordinary  excesses,  and  Avhose 
original  purity  of  manners  and  good  faith  among  themselves  did  not  en- 
dure a  moment  longer  than  it  enabled  them  to  subdue  the  rest  of  man 
kind.  Of  the  many  mistakes  Avhich  our  classical  fondness  for  the  Komans 
have  led  us  into  respecting  them,  there  is  not  a  greater  or  more  unfounded 
one  than  the  high  opinion  we  are  apt  to  entertain  of  their  domestic  habits. 
The  Queen  of  Cities,  throned  upon  her  seven  hills,  in  marble  majesty, 
the  mistress  of  a  world  conquered  by  the  valor  of  her  sons,  is  a  picture 
of  our  imagination,  which  Ave  are  unAA-illing  to  spoil  by  filhng  up  all  its 
parts  with  too  curious  accuracy.  Certain  it  is  that  information  enough  is 
to  be  obtained  from  Eoman  authors  to  prepare  us  for  a  scene  of  much 
more  moderate  splendor  in  the  capital  of  Italy.  From  them  we  may 
leam  that  all  the  points  upon  which  the  imagination  reposes  AAith  so 
much  complacency  and  delight,  are  perfectly  consistent  with  misery,  dis- 
order, and  tilth.  \Ye  may  learn,  that  though  their  Venus  never  attracted 
public  notice  in  a  hooped  petticoat,  and  though  their  Apollo  ncA-er  dashed 
in  a  blue  SAvalloAv-tailed  coat  AA'ith  brass  buttons,  yet,  that  the  costume  of 
the  day,  whatever  it  might  be,  Avas  pretty  generally  bestowed  upon  their 
deities.  We  may  learn,  that  the  Romans,  with  all  their  wealth  and  power, 
and  ingenious  luxury,  enjoyed  but  little  real  cleanliness  and  comfort. 
More  of  that  most  desirable  and  excellent  article,  comfort,  may  be  had 
by  any  one  among  us,  than  could  have  been  enjoyed  by  a  Roman  noble, 
AA-ho  rode  in  carriages  AA'ithout  springs,  or  on  saddles  A\-ithout  stiiTups,  or 
dined  without  knives  and  forks,  or  lived  in  rooms  without  chimneys. 
And,  having  duly  weighed  these  and  similar  points  of  minute  history,  we 
may  bring  ourselves  to  adopt  more  sober  A'iews  of  the  magnificence  of 
ancient  Rome,  and  of  an  ancient  Roman.  In  spite  of  their  admiration 
for  Grecian  manners,  the  Romans  were  ill-calculated  for  CA^ery  elegant 
])ursuit.  After  abandoning  the  rigid  virtues  by  Avhich  Cincinnatus  reached 
the  summit  of  glory,  they  gave  Avay  to  a  cormption  of  manners,  and  an 
insatiable  rapacity,  which  would  have  remained  a  solitai-y  example  of  hu- 
man depravity,  had  not  revolutionary  France  exhibited  scenes  still  more 
horrid  and  rcA-olting.  The  tATanny  of  the  Romans,  and  of  the  French 
under  Bonaparte,  is  stamped  Avith  the  same  homd  features,  the  same  un- 
bounded and  unprincipled  lust  of  dominion  rendered  both  the  disturbers 
of  human  repose.  By  the  pride  and  aviditA-  of  the  descendants  of  Romu- 
lus. Greece  AA'as  stripped  of  her  pictures  and  statues  :  by  the  rapacity  and 
avidity  of  the  Directorial  Government,  and  that  Jacobin  General.  Italy 
AA-as  robbed  of  these  identical  statues,  and  of  paintings  more  exquisitely 
beautiful  CA-en  than  those  of  Zeuxis  or  Apelles.  If  to  plunder  the  van- 
quished of  every  thing  that  can  contribute  to  the  comfort,  instruction,  or 
the  ornament  of  society  be  an  object  of  merited  censure,  both  nations  are 
equally  culpable,  both  equally  tATants  and  robbers.  The  ravager,  the  ex- 
terminator. Verres,  Avas  not  worse  than  many  others  of  the  Roman  Pro- 
consuls. "Who  can  read  the  Yerrine  orations  and  not  curse  from  his 
heart  this  cruel  and  rapacious  people  1    The  money  of  the  unhappy  Si 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOK. 


329 


cilians  found  its  way  to  his  coffers,  and  their  grain,  whilst  they  were 
starving,  into  his  granaries.  The  axes  of  his  lictors  were  blunted  on 
their  necks,  and  the  favor  of  being  put  to  death  at  a  single  blow  was  sold 
at  a  heavy  price.  Turn  we  from  the  cruelty,  injustice,  and  rapacity  of 
Verres  1  As  we  turn  our  eyes  from  the  extortions  of  the  Sicilian  Praetor, 
they  may  perchance  light  upon  the  newspapers  of  the  day,  and  they  will 
there  find  scenes  equally  infamous  and  deplorable.  The  deeds  of  Verres 
stand  not  alone  in  the  history  of  the  world.  What  think  we  of  those 
slaughtered  at  Vicksburg  ?  "  It  was  in  vain  that  the  unhappy  men  cried 
out,  We  are  American  citizens ;  the  bloodthirsty  mob,  deaf  to  all  they 
could  urge  in  their  own  defence,  ordered  the  infamous  punishment  to  be 
inflicted.  Thus  were  innocent  American  citizens  publicly  murdered, 
while  the  only  words  they  nttered  amidst  their  cruel  sufferings  were, 
"  We  are  American  citizens."  "  O  Liberty !  0  sound  once  delightful  to 
every  American  ear  !  0  sacred  privilege  of  American  citizenship !  Once 
sacred,  now  trampled  upon."  Tell  me  not  that  the  storms  which  now 
agitate  the  surface  of  our  institutions  are  preferable  to  the  calm  unruffled 
sea  of  despotism  in  Eussia  and  Austria ;  give  me  the  despotism  of  a 
Nicolas  and  a  Metternich,  nay,  even  the  tyranny  of  a  Nero,  or  a  Caligula, 
any  thing  but  the  despotism  and  tyranny  of  an  infuriated  mob. 

The  taste  for  gladiatorial  murder,  prevalent  in  Rome  for  centuries,  and 
often  indulged  to  the  most  extravagant  excess,  implies  so  wide  a  devia- 
tion from  the  common  feelings  and  principles  of  humanity,  that  it  is  to 
be  regarded  as  an  important  fact,  in  the  moral  history  of  man.  Moralists 
will  tell  us  that  the  truly  brave  are  never  cruel ;  but  to  this  the  Roman 
Ampitheatres  say.  No.  There  sat  the  conquerors  of  the  world  coolly  to 
enjoy  the  torture  and  the  death  of  men  who  had  never  offended  them. 
Tvdce  in  one  day  came  the  matrons  and  senators  of  Rome  to  the  butchery ; 
and,  when  glutted  with  bloodshed,  the  Roman  ladies  sat  down  in  the  wet 
arena,  streaming  with  the  blood  of  their  victims,  to  a  luxurious  supper. 
But  enough  of  these  humiliating  details. 

The  moral  to  be  derived  from  Roman  history,  if  properly  applied,  is 
most  excellent,  and  cannot  be  too  often,  nor  too  strongly  inculcated.  It 
is  that  the  loss  of  civil  liberty  involves  a  destruction  of  every  feeling 
which  distinguishes  man  from  the  inferior  part  of  the  creation,  leaving 
his  faculties  to  vegetate  in  indolence  or  to  become  brutalized  by  sensuali- 
ty ;  that  public  opinion,  when  suffered  to  Avaste  its  energies  in  wild  ap- 
plause of  faction  or  tyranny,  may  become  one  of  the  most  subservient 
instruments  of  oppression,  and  even  bow  its  neck  to  the  ground  ere  the 
foot  of  the  tyrant  be  prepared  to  tread  upon  it. 


LXXXIX. 

ESSAY,  TREATISE,  TRACT,  THESIS, 

An  Essay,  literally  means  nothing  more  than  a  trial,  or  an 
attempt.    It  is  sometimes  used  to  designate  in  a  specific  man- 
28* 


330  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COIIIPOSITIOI^. 


ner  an  author's  attempt  to  illustrate  anj  point.  It  is  com- 
monly applied  to  small  detached  pieces,  which  contain  only 
the  general  thoughts  of  a  writer  on  any  given  subject,  and 
afford  room  for  amplification  into  details.  Some  authors 
modestly  used  the  term  for  their  connected  and  finished  en- 
deavours to  elucidate  a  doctrine.* 

A  Treatise  f  is  more  systematic  than  an  Essay.  It  treats 
on  the^  subject  in  a  methodical  form,  and  conveys  the  idea  of 
something  labored,  scientific,  and  instructive. 

A  Tract  t  is  only  a  species  of  small  treatise,  drawn  up 
upon  particular  occasions,  and  published  in  a  separate  form. 

A  Thesis  is  a  position  or  proposition  which  a  person  ad 
vances,  and  offers  to  maintain,  or  which  is  actually  maintained 
by  argument. 

Essays  are  either  moral,  political,  philosophical,  or  literary ;  they  are 
the  crude  attempts  of  the  youth  to  digest  his  own  thoughts,  or  they  are 
the  more  mature  attempts  of  tlie  man  to  communicate'  his  thoughts  to 
others.  Of  the  former  description  are  prize  Essays  in  schools,  and  of  the 
latter  are  the  Essays  innumerable  which  have  been  published  on  every 
subject  since  the  days  of  Bacon. 

Treatises  are  mostly  wa-itten  on  ethical,  political,  or  speculative  sub- 
jects, such  as  Fenelon's,  Milton's,  or  Locke's  "  Treatise  on  Education  " 
De  Lolme's  "  Treatise  on  the  Constitution  of  England."  ' 

Tracts  are  ephemeial  productions,  mostly  on  poKtical  and  religious 
Bubjects,  which  seldom  survive  the  occasion  which  gave  them  birth.  Of 
this_  description  are  the  pamphlets  which  daily  issue  from  the  press  for  or 
against  the  measures  of  government,  or  the  public  measures  of  any  par- 
ticular party. 

The  Essay  is  the  most  popular  m.ode  of  writing;  it  suits  the  wi-iter 
who  has  not  talent  or  inclination  to  pursue  his  inquiries  farther,  and  it 
suits  the  generality  of  readers,  who  are  amused  with  variety  and  super- 
ficiality. _  The  Treatise  is  adapted  for  the  student,  who  will  not  be  con- 
tented with  the  superficial  Essay,  when  more  ample  materials  are  within 
his  reach. 

The  Tract  is  formed  for  the  political  or  religious  partisan,  and  receives 
its  interest  from  the  occurrence  of  the  motive.  The  Dissertation  inter- 
ests the  disputant.    ( See  Dissertation,  page  334.) 


*  See  Locke's  "  Essay  on  tlie  Understanding,"  and  Beattie's  "Essay  on 
Truth." 

t  Treatise  and  Tract  have  both  the  same  derivation,  from  the  Latin  tra^iv 
ho  draw,  manage^  or  handle,  and  its  participle,  tractiis. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMrOSITION. 


331 


Exam'ole  \st  of  an  Essay. 

LITERATURE. 

The  developement  of  nind,  tlie  exertions  of  talent,  the  labors  of  indus- 
try, are  all  subjects  intimately  interwoven  with  the  moral  character  of  a 
rational  and  accountable  being.  It  is  a  curious  and  interesting  investiga- 
tion to  trace  the  history  of  man,  as  he  emerges  from  a  state  cf  nature,  and 
passes  through  the  successive  gradations,  from  mere  animal  existence, 
to  a  state  of  refined  civilization  and  moral  culture.  And  it  is  equally 
delightful  to  the  man  of  letters,  to  heboid  the  effects  of  learning  in  its 
various  stages,  in  amending  the  inward  state  of  mankind,  as  the  refine- 
ments of  luxury  add  to  their  external  convenience. 

It  is  a  common  remark  with  the  historian,  tliat  the  discovery  of  the  use 
of  iron  is  the  first  step  from  savage  to  civilized  life.  The  remark  is  just, 
but  must  be  received  in  a  limited  sense ;  for  there  is  an  internal  as  well  as 
external  history ;  a  history  of  mind  as  well  as  of  matter ;  an  intellectual 
civilization  distinct  from  the  history  of  nations,  and  independent  of  the 
combinations  of  beauty  of  figure  and  of  color.  What  iron  is  to  the  animal 
nature  of  man,  literature  is  to  his  intellectual  condition.  The  former  sup- 
plies him  with  the  means  of  defence,  enables  him  to  overcome  the  debility 
of  his  organic  powers,  and  endues  him  with  factitious  strength,  as  useful 
as  that  which  nature  has  confen-ed.  The  latter  preserves  the  acquisitions 
of  the  former,  guides  its  operations,  concentrates  its  usefulness,  and  enables 
him  to  avail  himself  of  the  achievements  of  genius  struggling  ^vith  the 
inertness  of  matter,  or  fettered  by  the  restrictions  of  ignorance  and  bar- 
barity. The  history  of  literature  is  the  history  of  the  noblest  powers  of 
man.  There  is  a  sameness  in  savage  life,  which  affords  but  little  interest 
to  speculation ;  and  confines  the  investigations  of  the  philosopher  and  man 
of  observation  within  narrow  limits.  The  scope  of  his  abilities  is  narrow 
and  contracted.  The  construction  of  rude  implements,  the  provision  of 
the  necessaries  of  life,  the  strifes,  collisions,  and  bitter  feuds  of  hostile  and 
ambitious  chiefs,  deficient  in  interest,  because  deficient  in  incidents ;  the 
simple  tales  of  love  or  the  sombre  stories  of  licentiousness,  these  form  the 
material  of  the  history  of  nations,  upon  whom  science  has  never  beamed, 
nor  literature  shed  its  renovating  rays.  In  the  relation  of  these  incidents, 
there  is  no  history  of  mind,  no  account  of  the  progress  of  intellect,  further 
than  what  is  observed  in  the  ingenuity  of  mechanical  contrivance,  limited 
by  the  ignorance  of  the  properties  of  things.  But  the  invention  ot  letters, 
preceded  by  the  mxysticism  of  hieroglyphic  symbols,  gave  a  new  face  to 
the  World  ;  enlarged  the  subjects  of  knowledge,  and  changed  man  from  a 
mere  animal  to  an  intellectual  being.  The  history  of  hterature,  from  the 
invention  of  letters  to  the  present  day,  involves  all  that  is  interesting  in 
the  history  of  man.  To  what  purpose  would  the  divine  gifts  of  speech 
and  reason  have  been  conferred,  unless  the  monuments  of  their  achieve- 
ments should  have  more  stability  than  could  exist  as  they  float  on  the 
recollections  of  a  single  generation.  The  animal  nature  of  man  might, 
so  far  as  posterity  is  concerned,  be  considered  the  nobler  because  the  more 
permanent  part  of  his  being.  The  structures  which  his  hands  have  reared, 
though  still  amenable  to  the  laws  of  decay,  would  survive  the  shocks  of 
ages,  while  no  monument  v>^ouid  exist  of  his  immortal  spu'it ;  no  recollec- 


332 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 


tion  remain  of  that  which  distinguishes  him  from  the  inferior  order 
beings.  Age  would  succeed  to  age  without  ^^dtnessing  any  accession  UJ 
the  ticlds  of  knowledge.  Traditionary  lore,  like  the  rays  of  light,  would 
vary  in  its  import  as  it  passed  from  hand  to  hand,  and  one  generatio« 
could  not  be  enriched  by  the  acquisitions  of  its  predecessor.  But  the 
invention  of  letters  has  established  a  chancery  by  which  the  acquisitions 
of  one  age  have  been  handed  down  as  a  rich  inheritance  to  its  successor ; 
while  the  later  age,  like  the  posterity  of  an  ancient  family,  has  revelled  in 
the  i-iches  entailed  by  its  ancestors.  Such  are  tlie  effects  of  Kterature, 
considered  only  as  it  enlarges  the  fields  of  knowledge,  and  gives  a  \nder 
range  to  the  exercise  of  the  intellectual  faculties. 

_  But  there  is  another  and  a  more  interesting,  because  more  important, 
view  to  be  taken  of  its  influence,  as  it  operates  on  the  moral  nature  of 
mankind.  In  the  construction  of  implements  of  defence,  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  architectural  convenience,  in  the  pursuit  of  the  objects  of  sense, 
man  is  superior  to  some  species  of  the  brute  creation,  only  as  his  corporeal 
powers  are  better  adapted  to  mechanical  exertion.  The  bee,  the  beaver, 
the  ant,  and  other  mferior  orders,  rival  the  most  successful  efforts  of  mau 
in  the  construction  of  a  habitation  adapted  to  the  respective  exigencies  of 
each.  But  Mey  operate  by  instinct,  —  his  labors  are  the  suggestions  of 
necessity  in  conference  with  inventive  powers :  and  it  is  a  curious  investi- 
gation to  trace  the  gradations  from  destitution'to  comfort,  from  comfort  to 
convenience,  and  from  convenience  to  ease,  and,  in  its  proper  connexion, 
the  moral  influence  of  each  upon  the  character  of  mankind.  There  it 
will  be  found  that  the  vaunted  nobleness  of  savage  nature,  the  magna- 
nimity ascribed  by  some  even  of  the  present  day,  to  the  uncaltivated  st'ates 
of  society,  are  but  the  chimeras  of  prejudice,' or  at  least  but  en-oneous 
deductions  from  soHtary  examples.  The  history  of  literature,  will  abun- 
dantly show  that  such  instances  are  but  the  taper  in  the  dungeon,  which 
appears  the  brighter  from  the  darkness  by  which  it  is  surrounded ;  while 
in  the  improved  forms  of  life,  in  those  ages  when  the  brightness  of  learn- 
ing has  dispelled  tht:  clouds  in  the  minds  of  men,  and  day  has  da^raed 
upon  the  eyes  of  all,  the  aspen  flame  is  eclipsed  by  brighter  light,  and  is 
unnoticed,  because  it  is  unfavored  by  the  advantages  of  contrast. 

Laws  owe  their  permanency  to  their  consistency:  and  their  consistency 
is  mainly  to  be  attributed  to  a  wise  consideration  of  the  exigencies  of 
society,  deduced  from  the  operations  of  cause  and  effect  upon  the  human 
mind.  When  history,  therefore,  is  silent,  their  deductions  must  be  made 
from  a  limited  view  of  society;  and,  like  all  conclusions  drawn  from  va- 
rious views,  are  likely  to  be  erroneous.  It  is  letters  which  give  a  tongue 
to  history,  and  provide  it  with  a  distinct  utterance.  It  is  letters  which 
make  the  past  a  monitor  to  the  present,  and  the  present  a  guide  to  the 
future. 

The  view  whicli  we  have  thus  taken  of  literature  is  nan-ow  and  circum- 
scribed. Indeed,  the  subject  is  as  exhaustless  as  its  objects  are  innumer- 
able. He  must  be  dead  to  the  most  refined  pleasures  of  which  his  nature 
is  sisceptible,  who  is  deaf  to  the  claims  of  literature  to  his  attention,  or  is 
blind  to  the  importance  and  value  of  learning. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


333 


Example  2d  of  an  Essay. 

The  Pleasure  derived  from  the  FineAiis,  by  the  Artist  and  Common  Spectator. 

The  pleasure  deiived  from  the  Fine  Arts  is  doubtless  proportioned  to  our 
capacity  of  appreciating  them  ;  for  they  address  thematlves  chiefly  to  the 
imagination  and  the  sensibility.  The  mere  pleasures  of  sense  every  man 
may  feel ;  but  those  derived  from  intellect  and  sentiment  are  more  limited, 
and  of  a  higher  order.  Hence  it  is,  that  the  artist  feasts  on  his  self- 
created  treasures,  and  lives  on  fancy's  imagery,  whilst  the  hieroglyphicai 
daub  of  a  sign-painter  would  be  more  attractive  to  the  common  spectator 
than  the  hues  of  Titian,  or  the  bold  master-strokes  of  a  Michael  Angelo. 
Taste  is  a  sentiment  of  the  soul.  It  is  a  keen  perception  of  the  sublime 
and  beautiful  in  art  and  nature.  United  with  genius,  it  even  creates  h> 
itself  images  surpassing  human  excellence  ;  objects  which  exist,  perhaps, 
but  in  the  painter's  and  poet's  vision.  Guido  coveted  the  wings  of  an 
angel,  that  he  might  behold  the  beatified  spirits  of  paradise,  and  there- 
by form  an  archangel  such  as  his  imagination  was  obliged  to  substitute. 
How  sublime  must  have  been  the  vision  which  gave  the  object  his  im- 
agination sought  for !  How  intense  the  feeling  which  thus  transported 
him  from  earth  to  heaven  ! 

To  express  the  passions  by  outward  signs  is  the  artist's  aim ;  and  we 
may  add,  his  envied  privilege.  What  delight  to  see  the  cold  and  gloomy 
canvas  expand  with  life  ;  the  dull  void  banished  by  the  melting  eye,  the 
graceful  form,  the  persuasive  suppliant,  the  conquering  hero  !  Every 
touch  adds  something  to  the  soul's  expression,  till  the  enraptured  painter 
yields  himself  up  to  the  delightful  contemplation  of  his  new  creation.  "  I, 
too,  am  a  painter,"  exclaimed  Correggio,  with  involuntary  transport, 
while  contemplating  a  work  of  the  divine  Raphael ;  "  I,  too,  am  a  painter." 
Such  was  the  enraptured  feeling  which  would,  otherwise,  have  been  chilled 
by  the  cold  pressure  of  his  wants  and  poverty.  , 

To  common  observers,  the  most  beautiful  painting  may  seem  but  an 
assemblage  of  forms,  and  the  most  exquisite  poem  but  doggerel  rhyme. 
The  higher  efforts  of  art  produce  but  little  effect  on  uncultivated  minds. 
It  is  (as  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  observes^  only  the  lowest  style  of  arts, 
whether  of  painting,  poetry,  or  music,  that  may  be  said,  in  the  vulgar 
sense,  to  be  naturally  pleasing.  Taste,  and  a  just  discrimination,  are  the 
results  of  education.  The  concertos  of  Steibell  and  Clementi  would  be 
jargon  to  the  ear  accustomed  only  to  the  monotonous  tones  of  Hob  or 
Nob,"  and  "  Yankee  Doodle,"  nor  would  the  admirer  of  "  Punchinello," 
or  "Jack  the  Giant  I^iller,"  be  enraptured  with  the  grace  and  dignity  of 
an  Apollo  Belvidere,  or  a  Venus  de  Medicis. 

That  a  susceptibiUty  and  love  of  the  sublime  and  beautiful  are  a  source 
of  happiness,  who  can  doubt,  that  has  seen  the  "Aurora"  of  Guido  1  How 
rich,  how  sublime  the  fancy,  which  could  produce  so  enchanting  an  as- 
semblage of  all  that  is  graceful  and  lovely !  and  how  animated,  how  en- 
rapture:, the  feelings  of  him  whom  a  refined  taste  renders  capable  of  ap- 
preciating them !  Dupaty's  soul  rrxelted  at  the  view  of  Raphael's  "Incendia 
del  Borgo."  He  saw  not,  in  that  moment  of  enraptured  feeUng,  a  pictured 
flame,  but  the  devouring  element,  raging,  enveloping,  and  consuming  the 
helpless  and  despairing  multitude.  To  look  on  such  a  production  with 
total  indifference  is  impossible.   Apeiles's  critic  was  a  competent  judge 


334 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


of  the  representation  of  a  sandal,  and  Moliere's  old  woman  could  decide 
upon  the  nature  of  comic  humor ;  but  it  is  the  artist  and  connoisseur 
alone,  who  can  judge,  appreciate,  and  feel  the  highest  order  of  color,  mor 
dification,  and  expression. 

The  portrait  painter  also  claims  our  attention  and  gratitude.  He  who 
gives  to  our  weeping  eyes  the  form  of  the  beloved  and  departed  friend ; 
whose  magic  touch  arrests  beauty  in  its  progress  to  decay,  and  whose 
pencil  immortalizes  the  revered  forms  of  the  hero  and  the  statesman ;  the 
sjul-breathing  expression  of  a  Washington,  a  Franklin,  and  an  An  es. 

Painting  may,  perhaps,  be  said  to  be  the  acme  of  the  arts,  since  it 
iharms  by  so  many  various  branches,  and  admits  of  such  infinite  variety 
Df  color  and  expression  :  but  let  not  the  "  verba  ardentia  "  of  the  poet  be 
robbed  of  their  honors.  The  lyre  of  a  Milton,  a  Co^^^er,  a  Bryant,  and  a 
Wordsworth,  can  never  breathe  other  than  harmonious  sounds.  Their 
words  melt  into  ideas,  as  the  objects  of  nature  gather  light  and  color  from 
the  sun. 

Shall  we  not  allow  the  poet,  then,  his  joys  and  honors  ?  Shall  the 
emanations  of  his  fancy  shine  on  hearts  cold  and  dead  to  its  rays  ?  No ! 
Through  the  tear  of  sensibility  we  see  his  power;  we  feel  in  the  tender 
accents  of  the  voice  that  trembles  while  it  reads. 

Since  the  pleasures  derived  from  the  Fine  Arts  are  so  exquisite,  both  to 
the  artist  and  spectator,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  our  sources  of  happi- 
ness might  be  greatly  extended  by  their  liberal  cultivation.  That  arts 
and  morals  are  materially  connected,  there  is  no  doubt.  Horace  observes : 

"  Ingenuas  clidicisse  flcleliter  artes, 
EmoUit  mores,  nec  siiiit  esse  feros.  ■' 

And  could  this  spu'it,  this  admiration  of  the  beautiful,  be  generously  cul- 
tivated, the  genius  of  our  soil  might  proudly  ascend  the  summit  of  Par 
nassus.  Public  favor  is  the  most  powerful  stimulus  to  talent ;  exhibitions 
therefore,  of  the  best  productions,  both  in  painting  and  sculpture,  will 
have  a  tendency  to  diffuse  a  general  taste,  and  to  inspire  a  spirit  of  emu- 
lation, from  which  the  most  beneficial  results  may  be  anticipated.  Let  us 
not  suffer  the  artists  who  now  grac;e  our  shores  to  forsake  us,  for  the  want 
of  that  patronage  which  it  should  be  our  pride  and  pleasure  to  bestow 
We  cannot,  indeed,  expect  to  rival  the  treasures  of  the  Louvre  or. the 
Vatican ;  but  from  the  exercise  of  native  talent,  and  from  the  specimens 
of  art  we  already  possess,  much  may  be  expected.  In  the  cabinets  of 
private  individuals  in  our  city,  may  be  found  productions  sufficient  to 
form  a  choice  collection  for  public  exhibition,  and  it  is  to  the  liberality  and 
patronage  of  their  possessors  that  we  look  for  such  encouragement  as  shall 
stimulate  the  young  artist  to  immortalize  his  name,  and  shed  a  lustre  on 
his  country. 

Exawqjle  Bd, 

The  Sentiment  of  Loyalty. 

Loyalty,  in  its  primitive  signi-lcation,  implies  fidelity  to  a  king.  Henc^e, 
a  loval  subject  is  one  who  promotes  as  far  as  possible  the  welfare  of  the 
kingdom,  who  assists  in  the  maintenance  of  the  laws,  and  m  times  of  danger 
is  ever  ready  to  defend  the  life  and  honor  of  his  sovereign,  and  to  sacrifice 
himself  for  the  good  of  his  country. 

This  sentiment  is  natural  to  the  human  race.  If  we  analyze  our  various 
feelings  and  emotions,  we  shall  find  that  the  sentiment  of  love  is  one  ot 


AIDS  TO    ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


335 


the  most  powerful  passions  which  nature  has  implanted  in  the  breast  of 
man ;  it  is  the  most  powerful,  because,  when  excited  and  kindled,  it  burns 
with  an  ardor  almost  unquenchable ;  it  warms  and  spurs  the  whole  man  on 
ward  towards  the  accomplishment  of  its  object ;  impetuous  and  irresistible, 
.It  overcomes  all  obstacles  which  rise  before  it. 

The  sentiment  of  Loyalty  is  one  of  the  manifestations  of  this  love  ;  spring- 
ing from  that  noble  source,  it  flows  onward  till  it  meets  the  waters  of  other 
streams,  which  it  deepens  and  purifies. 

Since  nature  has  given  to  man  this  sentiment  of  loyalty,  it  will  always 
find  suitable  objects  on  which  to  bestow  itself.  Man  was  made  for  love ; 
he  must  have  something  to  honor,  respect,  and  admire  ;  something  usually 
higher  and  nobler  than  himself;  consequently,  in  despotic  countries,  honor 
and  love  are  paid  by  a  loyal  people  to  their  sovereign,  who,  being  of  a 
higher  station,  of  a  more  venerated  name,  or  of  nobler  descent  than  them- 
selves, is  entitled  to  this  respect. 

In  our  own  country,  we  venerate  the  wisdom  and  prudence  of  our  ances- 
tors, who,  in  framing  the  articles  of  our  constitution,  provided  for  the  good 
of  succeeding  generations ;  and,  at  tlie  present  day,  when  we  see  a  citizep 
devoting  himself  to  the  service  of  his  country  with  that  patriotic  spirit 
which  characterized  our  fathei's,  our  affections  are  aroused,  our  lips  send 
forth  his  praise,  v/e  hail  him  as  the  defender  of  the  Constitution,  and  the 
whole  nation  rises  up  to  do  him  homage. 

In  England,  recently,  that  loyalty,  which  for  two  preoeding  reigns  had 
been  slumbering,  burst  forth  with  redoubled  vigor  upon  the  accession  of  a 
female  sovereign  to  the  throne. 

At  the  beginning  of  a  new  reign,  the  loyalty  of  a  nation  is  always  openly 
and  warmly  exhibited.  But  on  that  occasion,  there  was  something  in  the 
fact,  that  their  future  sovereign  was  a  youthful  and  accomplished  queen, 
which  excited  in  an  unusual  degree  the  hopes  and  sympathies  of  the  nation. 
They  hailed  her  accession  as  emblematical  of  peace  and  prosperity. 

In  the  feudal  times,  in  the  times  of  chivalry  and  the  Crusades,  the 
knights  were  distinguished  for  their  loyalty  to  the  ladies  of  the  court.  In 
those  days,  the  fame  and  beauty  of  the  lady  inspired  her  champion  with 
courage  and  strength,  and  many  a  battle  has  been  fought  and  many  a  vic- 
tory v>'on,  under  this  spirit-stirring  influence  of  loyalty. 

Those  were  brilliant  days  for  Europe,  when  chivalry  stood  forth  in  its 
might,  and  first  gave  birth  to  loyalty,  —  loyalty,  Avhich  taught  devotion  and 
reverence  to  those  weak,  fair  beings,  who  but  in  beauty  and  gentleness 
have  no  defence.  "It  raised  love  above  the  passions  of  the  brute,  and  by 
dignifying  woman,  made  woman  worthy  of  love.  It  gave  purity  to  enthu 
siasm,  crushed  barbarous  selfishness,  taught  the  heart  to  expand  like  a 
flower  to  the  sunshine,  beautified  glory  with  generosity,  and  smoothed  even 
the  rugged  brow  of  war."  But  how  have  we  degenerated?  "The  age  of 
chivalry  is  gone  ;  never,  never  more  shall  we  behold  that  generous  loyalty 
to  rank  and  sex,  that  proud  submission,  that  dignified  odedience,  that  sub 
ordination  of  the  heart,  which  kept  alive,  even  in  servitude  itself,  the  spirit 
of  an  exalted  freedom  !  " 

But  though  the  sentiment  of  loyalty  has  greatly  degenerated,  it  is  not 
wholly  extinct ;  it  is  now  occasionally  expressed,  but  its  flame  is  faint  and 
flickering  ;  should  it  ever  expire,  it  will  go  hand  in  hand  with  patriotism, 
and  will  expire  with  that  faith  which  gave  it  life. 

To  conceive  truly  what  we  should  then  lose,  Ave  need  only  reflect,  that 
loyalty  is  the  bond  of  society  and  friendship,  it  unites  all  the  best  afiectiona 
of  the  heart  in  one  common  cause,  it  holds  a  sacred  place  not  to  be  invaded 
with  impunity,  it  is  respected  and  honored  by  the  old,  and  the  stories  of  ita 
valor  delight  the  young,  and 

"  Though  well  held,  to  fools  doth  make 
Our  faith  mere  i'oll.y,  yet  he  that  can  endure 
To  follow  with  allegiance  a  fallen  lord, 
Doth  conquer  him,  that  did  his  master  conswier. " 


836 


^IDS  TO    ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


xc. 

COLLEGE  POEM. 

Example. 
The  Pleasures  and  Pains  of  the  Student. 

When  envious  time,  with  unrelenting  hand, 
Dissolves  the  union  of  some  little  band, 
A  band  connected  by  those  hallowed  lies, 
That  from  the  birth  of  lettered  friendship  rise, 
Each  lingering  soul,  before  the  parting  sigh, 
One  moment  waits,  to  view  the  years  gone  by ;  . 
Memory  still  loves  to  hover  o'er  the  place, 
And  all  our  pleasures  and  our  patns  retrace. 

The  Student  is  the  subject  of  my  song, 
Eew  are  his  pleasures,  —  yet  those  few  are  strong. 
Not  the  gay,  transient  moment  of  delight. 
Not  hurried  transports  felt  but  in  their  flight. 
Unlike  all  else,  the  Student's  joys  endure^ 
Intense,  expansive,  energetic,  pure  5 
Whether  o'er  classic  plains  he  loves  to  rove, 
'Midst  Attic  bowers,  or  through  the  Mantuan  grovej— 
Whether,  vnth  scientific  eye,  to  trace 
The  various  modes  of  number,  time,  and  space,  — 
Wliether  on  wings  of  heavenly  truth  to  rise, 
And  penetrate  the  secrets  of  the  skies, 
Or  downwards  tending,  with  an  humble  eye, 
Through  Nature's  laws  explore  a  Deity, 
His  are  the  joys  no  stranger  breast  can  feel, 
No  Avit  define,  no  utterance  reveal. 

Nor  yet,  alas !  unmixed  the  joys  we  boast, 
Our  pleasures  still  proportioned  labors  cost. 
An  anxious  tear  oft  fills  the  Student's  eye,  ^ 
And  his  breast  heaves  with  many  a  struggling  sigh. 
His  is  the  task,  the  long,  long  task,  t'  explore 
Of  every  age  the  lumber  and  the  lore. 
Need  I  describe  his  struggles  and  his  strife, 
The  thousand  minor  miseries  of  his  hfe, 
How  Application,  never-tiring  maid, 
Oft  mourns  an  aching,  oft  a  dizzy  head  ? 
How  the  hard  toil  but  slowly  makes  its  way, 
One  word  explained,  the  labor  of  a  day,  — 
Here  forced  to  explore  some  labyrinth  without  end. 
And  there  some  paradox  to  comprehend  ? 
Here  ten  hard  words  fraught  with  some  meaning  small, 
And  there  ten  folios  fraught  with  none  at  all. 
Or  view  him  meeting  out  with  points  and  lines 
The  land  of  diagrams  and  mystic  signs, 


AmS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


337 


Wliere  forms  of  spheres  "  being  given  "  on  a  pla:3ie, 

He  must  transform  and  bend  within  his  brain. 

Or  as  an  author,  lost  in  gloom  profound, 

When  some  bright  thought  demands  a  period  round 

Pondering  and  polishing;  ah,  what  avail 

The  room  oft  paced,  the  anguish-bitten  nail? 

For  see,  produced  'mid  many  a  laboring  groan, 

A  sentence  much  like  an  inverted  cone. 

Or  should  he  tiy  his  talent  at  a  rhyme, 

That  waste  of  patience  and  that  waste  of  time, 

Pex-chance,  like  me,  he  flounders  out  one  line, 

Begins  the  next,  —  there  stops  — — . 

Enough,  no  more  unveil  the  cloister's  grief, 
Disclose  those  sources  whence  it  finds  relief. 
Say  how  the  Student,  pausing  from  his  toil, 
Forgets  his  pain  'mid  recreation's  smile. 
Have  you  not  seen,  —  forgive  the  ignoble  theme,  -~ 
The  winged  tenants  of  some  haunted  stream 
Feed  eager,  busy,  by  its  pebbly  side. 
Then  wanton  in  the  cool,  luxuriant  tide  ? 
So  the  wise  student  ends  his  busy  day. 
Unbends  his  mind,  and  throws  his  cares  av/ay. 
To  books  where  science  reigns,  and  toil  severe, 
Succeeds  the  alluring  tale,  or  drama  dear  5 
Or  haply  in  that  hour  his  taste  mio;ht  choose 
The  easy  warblings  of  the  modern  muse. 
Let  me  but  paint  him  void  of  every  care, 
Flung  in  free  attitude  across  his  chair. 
From  page  to  page  his  rapid  eye  along 
Glances  and  revels  through  the  magic  song  ; 
Alternate  swells  his  breast  with  hope  and  fear, 
Now  bursts  the  unconscious  laugh,  now  falls  the  pitying  tesi? 
Yet  more ;  though  lonely  joys  the  bosom  warm, 
Participation  heightens  every  charm  ; 
And  should  the  happy  student  chance  to  know 
The  warmth  of  friendship,  or  some  kindlier  glow. 
What  wonder  should  he  swiftly  ran  to  share 
Some  favorite  author  with  some  favorite  fair ! 
There,  as  he  cites  those  treasures  of  the  page 
That  raise  her  fancy,  or  her  heart  engage. 
And  listens  while  her  frequent,  keen  remark 
Discerns  the  brilliant,  or  illumes  the  dark. 
And  doubting  much,  scarce  knows  which  most  to  admire. 
The  critic's  judgment,  of  the  writer's  fire. 
And  reading  often  glances  at  that  face, 
Where  gently  beam  intelligence  and  grace ; 
And  sees  each  passion  in  its  turn  prevail, 
Her  looks  the  very  echo  of  the  tale  5 
Sees  the  descending  tear,  the  swelling  breast, 
When  vice  exults,  or  virtue  is  distressed ; 
Or,  when  the  plot  a,ssuro.es  au  aspect  new, 
And  virtue  shares  her  retribution  due, 
He  sees  the  grateful  smile,  th'  uplifted  eye, 
29 


838  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

Thread,  needle,  kerchief,  dropt  in  ecstasy, — 
Sav,  can  one  social  pleasure  equal  this  ? 

Yet  still  even  here  imperfect  is  the  bliss. 
Tor  ah  !  how  oft  must  awkward  learning  yield 
To  graceful  dulness  the  unequal  held 
Of  gallantry  1    What  lady  can  endure 
The  shrug  scholastic,  or  ihe  bow  demure  1  _ 
Can  the  poor  student  hope  that  heart  to  gain, 
Which  melts  before  the  flutter  of  a  cane  ? 
Or,  of  two  characters,  which  shall  surpass, 
Where  one  consults  his  books,  and  one  his  glasa  f 
Ye  fair,  if  aught  these  censures  may  apply, 
'T  is  yours  to  eftect  tlie  surest  remedy  5 
Ne'er  should  a  fop  the  sacred  bond  remove 
Between  the  Aonian  and  the  Paphian  grove. 
-T  is  vours  to  strengthen,  polish,  and  secure 
The  lusti-e  of  the  naind's  rich  garniture  ; 
This  is  the  robe  that  lends  you  heavenly  charms, 
And  envy  of  its  keenest  sting  disarms, 
A  robe  whose  gi-ace  and  richness  will  outvie 
The  woof  of  Ormus,  or  the  Tyrian  dye. 

To  count  one  pleasure  more,  indulge  my  muse,— • 
'T  is  friendship's  self, — what  cynic  will  refuse  ? 
0. 1  could  tell  how  oft  her  joys'  we 've  shared, 
When  mutual  cares  those  mutual  joys  endeared, 
How  ann  in  ann  we  'ye  lingered  through  the  vale, 
Listening  to  many  a  time-beguiling  tale. 
How  oft,  relaxing  from  one  common  toil. 
We 've  found  rep^ose  amid  one  common  smile. 
Yes,  I  could  tell,  but  0,  the  task  how  vam ! 
'T  would  but  increase  our  fast  approaching  pain ; 
The  pain  so  thrilling  to  a  student's  heart, 
Couched  in  that  talisman  of  woe,  we  part. 


XCI. 

DISSERTATION. 

A  dissertation  is  a  formal  discourse  intended  to  iUustrate 
a  subject,  and  the  term  is  properly  applied  to  performances 
of  an  argumentative  nature. 

Dissertations  are  principally  employed  on  disputed  pomts 
of  literature  and  science.* 

*  See  Eentley's  "Dissertation  upon  the  Epistles  of  Phalaris  "  and  D» 
Pan's    Dissertatioiis  on  tha  Egyptians  and  Chinese." 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Example. 

On  the  Causes  which,  independent  of  their  Merit,  have  contribuied  io  ele 
vote  the  ancient  Classics." 

The  ancient  classics  are  elevated  to  a  rank  in  the  literature  of  the 
world,  to  which  their  intrinsic  excellence  cannot  justify  their  claim.  Ad- 
mitting this  position,  which  their  most  strenuous  supporters  will  not  deny, 
but  unwilling  to  incur  the  imputation  which  a  declaimer  against  classical 
learning  must  deservedly  hazard  among  its  admirers,  1  shall  attempt  to 
show  some  of  the  causes  that  have  united  to  produce  this  elevation. 

The  standard  to  which  every  one  primarily  refers  what  he  examines, 
is  the  measure  of  his  own  power.  That  work  is  not  admired  which  he 
could  equal  or  surpass.  This  standard,  indeed,  is  soon  extended,  and 
similar  efforts  of  genius  of  other  ages  are  taken  into  the  comparison. 
The  barbarism  in  which  the  world  was  involved  at  the  revival  of  learning, 
made  the  classics  appear  to  its  restorers  in  an  unnaturally  strong  and 
dazzling  light.  Possessing  themselves  few  of  the  advantages  of  progres- 
sive improvement,  and  destiiute  and  ignorant  of  the  resources  of  the  an- 
cient authors,  they  viewed  their  works  as  the  efforts  of  transcendent 
genius,  which  had  completely  penetrated  and  exhausted  the  mines  of  na- 
ture, —  which  none  could  ever  after  approach,  and  only  the  most  exalted 
minds  comprehend.  They  applied  themselves  to  the  examination  of  the 
treasures  they  had  discovered,  and  burst  forth  into  unrestrained  admira- 
tion of  authors  from  whom  they  had  learned  to  think  and  to  speak. 
Ill  All  who  have  since  justly  appreciated  the  labors  of  these  fathers  of 
modern  literature,  have  concurred  in  sentiments  of  gratitude  and  rever- 
ence to  their  instructors. 

For  a  great  part  of  the  time  since  the  revival  of  letters,  those  who  aimed 
at  the  reputation  of  scholars  have  been  obliged  establish  then-  claim 
by  a  knowledge  of  the  classics.  The  possessor  of  This  knowledge  ob- 
tained respect,  and  continued  to  cultivate  it  from  the  pride  of  displaying 
learning  which  was  confined  to  a  few,  or  from  the  ambition  of  excelling 
in  what  constituted  his  chief  or  only  distinction.  This  was  necessarily 
the  case  when  little  other  than  classical  learning  existed ;  and  it  long  con- 
tinued, like  the  respect  for  hereditary  succession,  from  the  habit  of  pay- 
ing honor  to  what  our  predecessors  deemed  honorable.  While  prejudices 
were  tlms  strong  in  favor  of  the  classics,  few  ventured  to  appear  without 
their  support,  and  most  that  was  written  tended  to  preserve  and  strengthen 
their  ascendancy.  Regarded  as  having  assisted  the  first  literary  efforts 
of  the  majority  of  the  learned  men  of  modern  times,  and  being  generally, 
by  the  nature  of  their  subjects,  better  suited  than  most  other  books  to  the 
comprehension  of  the  young,  the  classics  have  long  been  presented  to  the 
infant  mind  of  the  scholar,  when  in  its  most  susceptible  state.  They 
have  thus  occupied  the  most  powerful  prepossessions,  and  been  allowed 
to  foi-m  and  constitute  the  standard  of  intellectual  beauty  and  excellence. 
They  have  intimately  insinuated  themselves  into  the  mind,_  at  a  period 
when  impressions  received  are  most  lasting  and  most  forcible.  _  They 
have  been  connected  with  the  tenderest  and  most  pleasing  associations ; 
with  the  memory  of  the  sports  and  enjoyments  of  childhood,  and  the  more 
affecting  recollections  of  the  attention  of  instructors  and  kindness  of  pa- 
rents.   Tho-^e  Avhom  the  youth  was  first  taught  to  respect  have  been  men 


S^j^pp  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  C03IP0SITI0N. 

devoted  x>  these  studies,  and  employed  to  point  out  their  beauties,  and  to 
direct  the  yet  unformed  taste  to  their  perception  and  just  admiration. 

It  was  under  the  guidance  of  such  conductors,  that  the  young  imagina- 
tion  took  its  earhest  flights.  The  first  scenes  of  native  simplicity  and 
happiness  it  sketched,  were  amidst  the  classical  vales  of  Thessaly.  The 
first  popular  assemblies  it  regarded  with  interest,  were  those  of  Athens 
and  liome.  The  first  battles  it  pictured  to  itself  were  fought  under  the 
banners  of  a  Grecian  or  Roman  general.  Whenever,  in  after  life  and 
other  books,  pastoral  scenery,  or  popular  commotion,  or  the  tumult  of 
war.  presented  themselves,  they  brought  back  these  impi-essions,  were  re 
ferred  to  these  exemplars,  and  the  justice  and  elegance  of  description 
were  determined  by  the  comparison. 

To  this  may  be  added  the  undefined  sense  of  the  greatness  of  an  ob- 
ject at  first  imperfectly  comprehended,  which  continues  to  display  beauties 
and  higlier  excellences  the  more  closely  and  attentively  it  is  contem 
plated.  This  quality,  common  to  every  work  of  merit,  must  be  particu 
larly  exhibited  in  those,  which,  like  the  classics,  are  sufficiently  intelligible 
to  interest  minds  not  yet  adequate  to  their  complete  comprehension. 

I  insist  not  on  the  respect  that  we  pay  to  antiquity;  the  records  of  her 
wisdom,  though  for  ages  deemed  sacred,  have  long  since  been  exposed  to 
the  gaze  and  scrutiny  of  the  profane.  Her  voice  is  no  longer  listened  to 
as  speaking  the  language  of  inspiration.  The  charm  that  riveted  atten- 
tion is  dissolved.  Men  of  modem  times  affect  to  reverence  the  dictates 
of  reason  alone.  But  the  fact  has  not  always  been  thus ;  there  were  times 
when  the  classics  Avere  respected  merely  because  they  contained  the  lega- 
cies of  ancient  days. 

Inductive  philosophy  ha.?,  indeed,  taught  other  precepts  5  but  to  thoso 
ignorant  of  these  precepts,  or  impatient  of  the  long  and  weary  path  which*^ 
this  philosophy  pointed  out,  some  of  the  Greek  classics  offered  to  show 
a  pleasanter  and  far  shorter  way  to  universal  science.  Having  once  em- 
braced the  theories  of  the  philosophers,  they  must  have  rejected  with  ridi- 
cule the  pretension8#f  dther  books  to  competition  with  the  Avorks  of  such 
as  genius  has  admitted  to  the  secret  councils  of  nature.  The  works  of 
the  Grecian  philosophers  constitute,  indeed,  but  a  small  portion  of  the 
classics.  But  how  often  are  we,  by  our  admiration  of  a  favorite  author, 
prepossessed  in  favor  of  the  whole  nation  to  which  he  belongs  ! 

But  philosof)hy  cannot  boast  herself  5  she  is  silent  and  contemplative 
and  must  borrow  language  to  communicate  her  inventions.  Philosophi- 
cal science  forms  the  solid  distinction  of  modern  times.  Ambitious  men 
may  use  science  as  an  instrument,  but  will  not  pursue  it  as  an  end.  It 
is  the  ostentatious  and  imposing  knowledge  of  the  language,  and  of  the 
arts  which  orators  and  poets  have  employed  to  sway  the  judgment  by 
rousing  the  passions,  and  will  be  sought  after  by  these  men ;  and  this 
knowledge  they  will  find  in  the  classical  relics  of  the  days  of  imagination 
and  enthusiasm. 

But  if  these  relics  contain  more  of  the  fictions  of  a  poetical  age,  of  ths 
playful  wanderings  of  the  youth  of  human  society,  than  of  sober  reason 
and  thoughtful  experience,  why  do  they  still  delight  the  wisest  of  our 
thinking  race  1 

Our  attention,  on  opening  a  volume  of  the  classics,  is  immediately  wot- 
by  the  manly  and  striking  manner  in  which  every  thing  is  expressed 
Thoughts  are  pursued  with  ease  as  they  present  themselves  in  language  full, 
forcible,  and  distinct.   We  ascribe  wholly  to  intrinsic  merit  an  excellence 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


owino-,  in  a  degree,  to  external  circumstances.  In  a  language  that  liaa 
been  so  many  centuries  Awitten  only,  the  ideas  connected  with  each  word 
have  become  long  since  determinately  fixed.  The  attention  is  not  divert- 
ed by  the  numerous  indistinct  images  with  which  every  word  ot  a  hving 
lano-uar^e  is  necessarily  associated;  nor  is  the  mind  hable  to  be  misled  by 
aUusions  to  subjects  foreign  to  the  one  in  view.  The  application  ot  each 
word  appears  strikingly  appropriate  and  peculiar. 

In  a  livino-  language  it  cannot  be  thus.  Where  philosophy  must  bor- 
row the  garb  of  ordinary  life  ;  when  she  must  converse  in  the  same  dia- 
lect  that  is  employed  in  the  usual  transactions  of  business,  and  which 
must  present  many  images  that  are  low  and  disgustmg,  and  more  that  are 
common,  though  she  may  please  by  her  famiUarity,  she  cannot  but  lose 
the  charm  of  novelty,  and  the  dignity  of  elevation.  Many  of  the  thoughts 
that  seem  admirable  in  the  original  of  the  ancient  classics,  cease  to  strike 
in  a  modern  translation.  They  lose  their  simple  energy  of  expression, 
their  innocence  and  delicacy  of  sentiment,  and  are  debased  by  associa- 
tions with  the  grossness  of  sensible,  or  the  meanness  of  trivial  objects. 
Hence  it  is,  that  though  we  may  infuse  into  a  translation  from  the  classics 
all  the  sense,  we  cannot  the  grace  and  spirit  of  the  original.  _  ^ 

These  are  some  of  the  causes  to  which  the  ancient  classics  owe  their 
elevation.  They  are  esteemed  as  having  assisted  the  first  efforts  or  re- 
vivino-  literature,  and  contributed  to  the  highest  distinction  oi  modern 
Bcholirs  They  were  venerated  as  the  bequest  of  antiquity  ;  they  are 
still  consecrated  by  their  connexion  with  the  pure  enjoyments  and  tender 
affections  of  childhood.  They  are  dignified  by  a  lofty  freeaom  from  the 
imperfections  of  a  fluctuating  language,  and  from  the  analogies  and  asso- 
ciations that  combine  -obscurity  and  \Tilgar  coarseness  m  a  language 
which  still  continues  to  be  spoken. 


xcn. 

DISQUISITION. 

A  Disquisition  is  a  formal  or  systematic  inquiry  into  any 
subject  by  arguments,  or  discussion  of  the  facts  and  cu'cum- 
stances  that  may  elucidate  truth. 

A  disquisition  differs  from  a  dissertation  in  its  form  and  ex- 
lent.  A  dissertation  may  be  more  diffuse  in  its  character, 
and  consequently  is  generally  protracted  to  a  greater  length. 
A  disquisition  should  be  characterized  by  its  unity.  Nothing 
should  be  introduced  but  what  is  strictly  to  the  point ;  while 
in  a  dissertation  any  collateral  subjects  may  be  introduced 
which  have  a  bearing  upon  the  point  to  be  proved,  or  the* 
subject  to  be  elucidated, 
29* 


342 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Disquisitions  may  be  ethical,  political,  scientific,  or  literary, 
according  to  the  nature  of  their  subjects. 

AN  ETHICAL  DISQUISITION. 

JExample. 

The  strict  Application  of  Moral  Rules  to  the  Policy  of  States. 

We  all  hold  to  the  strict  confinement  of  individuals  by  the  mles  of 
morality ;  nations  are  but  assemblages  of  individuals  ;  why,  then,  should 
states  be  exempt  from  these  rules  ? 

Our  rules  of  morality  are  laid  doAvn  in  the  New  Testament,  as  given 
by  Jesus  Christ;  he  appears  to  have  made  no  distinction  between  man 
considered  as  a  single  being,  or  regarded  collectively,  as  existing  in  states. 
The  spirit,  if  not  the  letter,  of  his  sayings,  is  in  favor  of  the  universal 
application  of  these  principles ;  and  it  becomes  all,  who  dispute  this  po- 
sition, to  take  upon  themselves  the  onus  probandi.  Let  us  spend  a  few 
moments  in  the  survey  of  their  objections. 

They  say,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  magnitude  of  the  interest  at  stake 
justifies  them  in  resorting  to  chicanery,  the  rupture  of  treaties,  the  open- 
ing of  ambassadors'  letters,  and  many  other  honorable  exploits.  This 
interest  is  the  welfai-e  of  the  community  in  worldly  matters.  Can  it  be 
obtained  by  chicanery  ?  No !  in  the  language  of  a  most  eloquent  Avriter, 
"  personal  and  national  morality,  ever  one  and  the  same,  dictate  the  same 
measures  under  the  same  circumstances." 

MoreoA^er,  the  opponents  say,  that  expediency  requires  the  deception 
commonly  practised  in  national  affairs,  and  laugh  at  the  idea  of  any  oth- 
er system.  "  Let  those  laugh  that  win !  "  but  remember  that  dei^ision  is 
no  proof  of  the  validity  of  one  position,  or  the  fallacy  of  another.  Long 
enough  has  this  world  grovelled  beneath  pretended  expediency,  as  if  short- 
sighted man  could  better  frame  regulations  for  the  future,  than  he  who 
holds  eternity  within  his  grasp  ;  let  us,  if  no  others  will,  rise  as  a  nation 
and  shake  off  the  chain ;  let  us  stand  forward  in  the  pui'suit  of  our  best 
interests,  for,  till  the  influence  of  Christianity  is  combined  w'th  that  of 
philOi=ophy,  no  system  of  policy  can  be  perfect. 

The  Holy  Alliance  is  the  only  instance  in  which  this  union  has  been 
attempted,  and  although  the  title  has  been  branded  as  deceptive,  yet  it 
affords  the  testimony  of  the  most  powerful  princes,  that  its  object  was 
just.  Having  thus  done  away  with  the  principal  objections  of  our  oppo- 
nents, we  come  now  to  a  consideration  of  the  benefits  to  be  derived  frcm 
a  strict  application  of  these  rules ;  time  Avill  only  allow  us  to  touch  upon 
some  of  the  most  important,  and  point  out  their  influence  upon  our  con 
dition. 

The  laws  of  the  land  first  claim  our  attention ;  not,  indeed,  as  they 
now  are,  based  upon  the  narrow  views  of  man,  but  fixed  on  the  broad 
and  sure  foundation  of  morality.  The  Saviour  has  nowhere  freed  man 
from  his  obligation  to  attend  to  the  interests  of  his  fellow-man;  on  the 
contrary,  his  especial  command  was,  "  Do  unto  others  as  ye  would  that 
men  should  do  unto  you."  If  this  precept  were  observed  in  all  the  laws, 
we  should  no  longer  see  Idngs  oppressing  their  subjects,  or  men  of  one 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  343 

opinion  rising  to  crush  those  of  an  opposite,  in  defiance  of  eveiy  princi 
pie  implanted  in  the  liuman  breast.  ,    ^  , 

There  is  a  spirit  abroad  in  the  land,  which  would  fam  do  ^^g^^ 
ov^tes  fntts  Lgerness  ;  men  actuated  by  it      not  wait  to  see  th.n^ 
fellow-men  fully  c^omprehend  ti.em,  or  then-  object    This  i  not  the  spm^ 
of  truB  morality,  which  makes  its  path  as  clear  P^^^'turako  to 

leads  the  ffood  man  to  consider  not  merely  his  own  be"cht,  bi  t  a  so  o 
rd  eve  as^far  as  possible,  the  situation  of  the  poorer  glasses ;  he  would 
cciire'treir  earthly  happiness  by  the  only  sure  nieans,  firm  and  sdutary 
ia ws  In  these  times  it  becomes  every  man  to  consider,  that  his  intluence 
^m^^  the  wagoner  applied  his  f-^l^";!^ 

"in liie  first  place,  nations  may  be  regarded  as  having  tlie  same  feelings 
totards  one  Sjer  with  ind/viduals.   The  f  "=-7  Xlrtedli' 
S  a^SLrl?  trreSS  ^ofstrMjet  "tert 

and  h^  man  whose  suspicion  induced  him  to  open  letters  or  break 
the  bonds  he  had  voluntarily  given  to  another,  would  be  ejected  from  the 

^""rLTwhok  system  of  international  morality,  there  is  perhaps  nothing 
so'msettled  as  tlL  rules  for  the  construction  of  trebles,  andj^  the  way 
seems  clear.  A  treaty  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  a  promise  between 
^^o  or  more  nations,  commonly  for  mutual  beneht.         ,     ^  ^n^^virl 

Mankind  in  a  body  have  no  higher  interests  ^^an  ^le;^  have^^^^^^ 
uals-  each  member  of  society  is  anxious  only  for  cenam  natuiai  iigtits 
aSlofnt"  these  privileges'to  posterity these  we 
be  secured  by  a  strict  conformity  to  moral  rules.    It  is  no  aigument 
a'a  n    the  introduction  of  this  policy  to  say,  it  would  not  st^ccecd;  on 
fte  contrary,  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  perfect  s^^-^ess  would  ciown 
he  effort;  Ae  old  reasons  are  vain  and  futile;  ^^t  somethm-  new  be 
tried  ;  not'a  diplomatic,  but  a  bold  daring,  based  on  the  P"«^^.\lf '^^^  ' 
vine  ustice.    men  this  system  of  things  is         f.^'.^^^^.^i^^^,^  S 
ished;  in  the  beautiful  language  of  the  prophet,    Men  w  1  turn  tne^ 
swords  into  ploughshares  and  their  spears  mto  P^^-^nfl^o^-^'  oiecl  ?he 
war  no  more."    These  principles,  properly  earned  out,  would  check  be 
boundless  ambition  of  Mankind,  and  remove  petty^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
commonly  give  rise  to  the  wanton  destruction  of  Gods  ^/eation,  tne 
poTt^ouia  no  longer  exclaim  with  truth,  "Devil  with  devil  damned  fii-m 
concord  holds ;  men  only  disa-ree  of  creatures  rational        .  ^ 

The  common  origin  of  war  is  from  the  P'-e^ended  or  real  mf.mgem^^^^^^ 
a  treaty.  How  can  this  be  remedied  ?  ^^^'^^^/.^f^JS  cf^f^/  ^{'tl  J 
treaty  is  formed.  Second,  by  a  firm  yet  respectful  s^^tcrnent  of  ti  e  cas^^ 
when  one  has  been  broken.  A  man  of  sound  cominon  f  ^nse  guide  l^^^^ 
a  Christian  spirit,  is  far  more  likely  to  frame  treaties  ^^^at  ml  endme 
than  the  wily  diplomatist,  whose  aim  is  merely  to  make  as  much  money 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION". 


as  lie  :an  for  his  country,  regardless  of  the  injuries  he  may  commifc 
buch  a  man  acts  for  a  nation  as  he  does  for  himself;  he  carries  into  prac- 
tice the  precept,  "Love  thy  neighbor  as  thvself."  Many  writers  have 
ouched  upon  war,  and  much  has  been  said,  both  for  and  against  it; 
those  ot  t^ie  present  day  are,  however,  generally  opposed :  and  the  Con- 
gress of  Jsations  which,  but  a  few  years  since,  was  ridiculed  as  an  eman- 
ation ;rom  the  brains  of  hot-headed  fanatics,  is  already  occupyin<r  the 
attention  of  the  Avisest  legislators  throughout  the  v/orld. 

What  a  blissful  state  of  things,  when  all  nations  shall  be  at  peace! 
when  we  shall  see  each  pursuing  its  own  interest  with  benefit  to  the  rest! 
liiis  shall  be  the  consequence,  and  not  the  cause  of  the  universal  spread 
J^^^^^^^^^'  ^®  situation  of  our  own  country  is  particularly  favor- 
able tor  the  application  of  its  rules.  It  may,  indeed,  be  urged,  that  they 
would  not  yet  be  appreciated;  let  us  then  hasten  the  period,  and  not  rest 
m  the  work  of  well-doing,  till  all  tribes  and  nations  shall  be  brought  to 
know  their  God,  and  his  law.  Onward  !  should  then  be  the  cry  of  every 
moral  man ;  our  time  of  action  here  is  but  short  at  the  most,  yet  much 
may  be  done,  and  is  there  one,  who,  with  an  immortal's  happiness  within 
his  grasp,  is  too  indolent  to  put  forth  his  hand  for  it  ?  No  !  that  man  is 
unworthy  the  name  of  republican,  whose  sole  aim  is  self,  who  regards 
not  his  country,  and  his  fellow-men  throughout  the  world. 

Let  us,  then,  as  a  nation,  stand  forward  for  the  introduction  of  moral 
precepts  to  direct  our  relations  with  foreign  countries.  The  experiment 
IS  new,  but  does  not  the  interest  at  stake  warrant  us  in  the  risk,  if  there 
can  be  danger,  in  preferring  the  dictates  of  conscience  and  our  God  tc 
the  precepts  of  short-sighted  man. 


XCIII. 


A  'DISCUSSION. 

A  Discussion  is  the  treating  of  a  subject  by  argument,  to 
clear  it  of  difficulties,  and  to  separate  trutli  from  falsehood. 
It  is  generally  carried  on  between  two  or  more  persons,  who 
take  contrary  sides,  and  defend  them  by  arguments  and  illus- 
trations. 

Discussions  are  of  several  kinds,  such  as  philosophical,  literary,  politi- 
cal, or  moral,  according  to  the  subjects  of  which  they  treat ;  or  colloquial 
and  deliberative,  according  to  the  style  in  which  they  are  written,  or  the 
occasion  for  which  they  are  prepared. 

Discussions  serve  for  amusement,  rather  than  for  any  solid  purpose ; 
the  cause  of  truth  seldom  derives  any  immediate  benefit  from  them,  al- 
though the  minds  of  men  may  become  invigorated  bv  a  colhsion  of  sen- 
timent. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


PHILOSOPHICAL  BISCUSSION. 

JSxample. 

PAET  I. 

On  the  Expediency  of  making  AutliorsMp  a  Profession, 

In  modern  civilized  communities,  a  certain  opinion  or  maxim  is  often 
prevalent,  which,  would  we  strij)  it  of  the  shroud  of  conceit  and  the  glit- 
ter of  cant,  would  appear  unwarrantable  prejudice.  Of  this  description 
is  the  objection  so  constantly  urged  against  the  profession  of  the  author ; 
a  man  whom  few  will  call  their  brother,  the  laughing-stock  of  the  mer- 
chant's clerk,  and  a  laborer  poorly  paid  in  the  woi'ld's  coin.  The  broker 
seldom  meets  him  on  the  exchange ;  the  usurer  never  chaffers  with  him 
on  the  mart ;  the  old  man  clinks  his  bags  and  shrugs  his  shoulders  at  his 
prospects ;  the  schoolmaster  takes  to  trade,  and  presently  rolls  by  him  in 
his  coach,  and,  perhaps,  worst  of  all,  the  bright  eye  is  turned  away,  and 
the  fair  hand  withheld  by  one  who  can  never  be  the  wife  of  an  au- 
thor !  This  prejudiee  which  I  describe,  was  once  common  throughout  the 
old  world ;  now  it  is  particularly  confined  to  America.  Still  everywhere 
the  man  whose  pen  is  to  be  his  support  is  thought  a  visionary,  or  an  idler. 
The  author  s  garret  has  long  since  passed  into  a  by-word,  and  the  gaping 
elbow  has  become  the  escutcheon  of  his  family.  His  poverty  is  a  kind 
of  general  butt,  and  his  sensitiveness  a  fair  subject  of  caricature.  I  am 
aware,  that  I  shall  not  speak  agreeably  to  the  judgment  of  most  who 
hear  me ;  let  us,  however,  examine  fairly  some  of  the  errors  which  have 
led  people  to  think  authorship  unprofitable  and  inexpedient. 

There  are  many  persons,  who,  having  neither  the  vigor  nor  refinement 
of  mind  to  distinguish  between  what  is  material  and  intellectaal,  would 
measure  poetry  by  the  yard,  or  fill  a  library  by  the  bushel !  To  such, 
whatever  yields  the  greatest  amount  of  tangible,  improvable  product  is 
the  best  producer ;  unless  mind  acts  openly,  as  a  machine,  they  suppose 
it  to  be  dormant.  Let  such  persons  first  comprehend  the  purpose  of  the 
author  whom  they  censure  ;  let  them .  learn,  that  there  possibly  may  be 
higher  motives  of  action  than  gold  or  silver,  —  loftier  contemplations 
than  those  of  the  counting-house  or  factory !  And,  although  this  is  a 
working-day  world,  and  man  must  labor  for  hu'e,  let  them  thank  God, 
that  there  are  men,  who  find  times  of  communion  with  better  thoughts  ; 
and,  but  for  whose  speculations,  and  grasps  at  the  infinite,  these  short- 
sighted cavillers  would  be  as  lifeless  as  the  clods  on  which  they  tread ! 
Coleridge  says,  with  the  enthusiasm  of  a  genius,  —  "I  expect  neither  profit 
Eor  general  fame  by  my  writings,  and  I  consider  myself  as  having  been 
amply  repaid  without  either.  Poetry  has  been  to  me  its  own  exceeding 
great  reward;  it  has  soothed  my  afilictions  ;  it  has  multiplied  and  refined 
my  enjoyments  ;  it  has  endeared  solitude,  and  it  has  given  me  the  habit 
of  wishing  to  discover  the  good  and  the  beautiful  in  all  that  meets  and  sur- 
rounds me."  Urge  such  a  man,  if  you  can,  to  convert  his  "  Christabel " 
into  an  interest-table,  and  limit  his  peace  of  mind  by  tlae  rise  and  fall  of 
stocks ! 


S46 


AII>8  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


We  of  Aiaerica  complain,  that  we  have  no  established  literature ;  and 
until  more  among  us  are  willing  to  devote  themselves  to  the  cause  of  lit 
erature,  we  must  be  content  to  reflect  the  literary  splendor  of  England 
Some  of  the  brightest  creations,  indeed,  of  modern  days,  some  of  thi 
fairest  creatures  of  love,  and  poetry,  and  romance,  belong  to  America, 
but  they  are  not  very  numerous,  and,  ten  to  one,  our  poet  or  novelist,  like 
the  poor  author's  garment,  which  was,  "  a  cap  by  nighty  a  stocking  all  tha 
tfa^,"  pours  forth  his  strain  after  completing  the  routine  of  a  pleader  at 
the  bar,  a  bank  officer,  or  political  editor !  Among  the  respectable  and 
vitally  important  cares  of  professional  life,  literature  has  a  poor  chance 
of  encouragement ;  the  philosopher's  speculations,  or  the  poet's  theory, 
having  nothing  to  do  with  the  brief  or  the  dissecting  knife. 

"  This  is  the  language,"  says  the  objector,  "of  romantic  folly;  we  must 
live,  so  let  us  labor  for  the  readiest  recompense ;  intellect  will  not  sup- 
port life,  nor  secure  comfort."  Such  an  one,  be  it  observed,  mistakes  the 
ambition  of  the  literary  man.  Without  altogether  neglecting,  he  seeks 
Bomething  infinitely  better,  than  pecuniary  ease.  True,  Goldsmith  was 
needy,  and  Chatterton  was  driven  to  despair,  and  Otway  died  of  starva- 
tion. But  I  do  not  believe  that  either  would  have  foregone  one  sublime 
conception,  or  erased  from  his  writings  one  maxim  of  sound  morality,  to 
gain  the  wealth  of  the  princes  who  neglected  him  !  A  lying  tombstone 
tells  the  story  of  many  a  rich  patron  of  their  time,  —  their  memorials  are, 
"  The  Deserted  Village,"  and  "  Venice  Preserved." 

I  am  not  advocating  that  sickly,  sentimental,  "  k)vc-in-a-cottage  "  kind 
of  doctrine,  which  teaches,  that  mind  is  above  ordinary  necessities,  and 
that  the  wants  of  hfe  are  not  our  common  inheritance.  But  I  do  contend, 
that  the  time  is  coming,  and  that  it  should  speedily  come,  in  America, 
when  a  class  of  men  whose  wants  are  not  extravagant,  but  attainable  and 
refined,  will  meet  with  support.  The  human  poAvers  are  unfairly  and 
unprofitably  employed,  if  turned  to  many  different  subjects;  and  this 
truth  should  be  better  known  in  America.  The  lawyer  has  an  end  before 
him,  which  only  a  life  can  attain ;  so  has  the  physician,  the  clergyman, 
and  the  author.    Unite  the  duties  of  either  two,  and  you  injure  both. 

Assuming,  what  we  need  not  enlarge  upon,  the  importaiice  of  a  high 
national  literature,  let  any  one  observe,  who  are  the  supporters  of  that 
which  adorns  England.  "  Not  those,  he  will  find,  who  united  two  or 
three  occupations !  Goldsmith  was  a  professional  man  at  first,  but  his 
patients  were  few,  and  he  soon  became  what  he  was  born  to  be,  an  au- 
thor !  Scott  never  figured  at  the  bai^,  and  Shakspeare  was  an  indifferent 
actor.  The  problem  may  be  easily  solved.  Some  minds  are  fitted  to 
investigate  by  help  of  the  data  of  others,  and  apply  to  God's  work 
their  conclusions,  and  others  are  designed  more  exclusively  to  create ;  — 
a  distinction  rarely  sufficiently  observed.  The  author  has  no  common 
work  to  pei-form ;  he  who  would  instruct  others,  must  untiringly  improve 
himself ;  presenting  no  theories  undigested,  and  familiar  with  the  wildest 
speculations.  In  America,  and  everywhere  else,  we  want  a  race  of  think- 
ers ;  men  who  will  keep  aloof  from  the  eddy,  which  draws  in  politician 
and  merchant,  and  even  the  professional  man,  and  give  us  the  results  of 
long  meditation.  The  mere  words  are  no  part  of  an  author's  labor ;  they 
but  represent  long  previous  mental  action.  The  silence  of  the  study  is 
ko  mature  the  observations  of  the  world. 

Professional  men  generally  appeal  to  their  race  only  in  one  capacity ; 
the  author,  by  enlarged  views  of  life,  and  illustrations  of  moral  truth,  may 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  ^347 

be  a  great  reformer.  Vice  has  long  enougla  run  riot ;  let  the  author 
moulding  passion  to  his  will  make  it  of  service  to  his  race !  J^<^  j^^ 
losopherT-  the  wonders  of  the  i.ast,  and  the  mysteries  o  he  f  utuic,  aie  his 
provmce.  Is  he  a  poet,  -  the  freshness  of  nature  the  favr  Ijohness  of  wo- 
man.  and  the  purity  of  truth,  urge  him  to  a  life  ^^''t^'^'^' 
tion.'  His  influence  spreads  light  ahout  hnn ;  his  .pursuits  soften  his 
nature;  he  loves  more  heartily  what  is  lovely,  and  is  more_  ready  to  p  y 
what  is  frail.  The  world  says  truly,  he  is  poor ;  but  what  is  that  povei  ty 
which  gives  wealth  to  one's  contemporaries,  and  bequeaths  an  mheritanc® 
to  posterity! 


PART  II. 

The  Expediency  of  making  Authorship  a  Profession 

Almost  universal  experience  proves  the  pecuniary  reward  of  literary 
labor  to  be  but  tiifling.  In  the  throng  of  authors  and  men  of  genius,  we 
find  onlv  here  and  there  a  soUtary  instance  of  well-requited  eudeavors  ; 
and  if  at  the  present  dav,  it  is  not  as  formerly  quite  true,  that  the  idea  ot 
an  author  must  be  associated  with  a  narrow  lane  and  an  obscure  garret, 
it  is  not  because  his  reward  is  liberal,  or  in  any  degree  proportioned  to 
Tiis  merits.  Individual  instances  may,  indeed,  be  brought  up,  to  prove 
the  success  which  sometimes  attends  Uterary  pursuits  ;  but  for  every  one 
that  could  be  cited,  who  had  basked  in  the  sunshine  of  prosperity,  and 
enioved  the  smiles  of  the  great  and  good  among  his  contemporaries,  we 
could  marshal  a  hundred  of  equal  power  and  genius,  depressed  by  pov- 
erty, and  treated  with  indifference  and  neglect;  whose  only  recompense 
has  been  the  tribute  paid  to  their  memory  and  wriungs  in  after  times. 

If  we  iud<^e,  then,  from  the  remuneration  that  has  generally  attended 
the  labors  of  the  author,  we  are  justified  in  forming  presages  little  tiatter- 
ino-  to  his  future  success.  And,  since  fortune  and  genius  are  seldom 
found  in  companionship,  what  mast  be  the  consequence  of  makmg  au- 
thorship a  profession,  of  individuals  devoting  themselves  to  the  cause  ot 
truth  and  literature,  and  relying  on  the  gratitude  and  favor  of  the  pubuc 
for  support  1  It  is  useless  to  say  what  should  be  the  rev/ard  ot  the  author, 
and  to  speak  of  the  dignity  and  importance  of  the  part  which  he  sustains 
in  the  pubhc  drama,  so  long  as  we  witness  what  is,  and  what  has  been  the 
requital  of  his  labors.  It  is  unon  facts  alone,  that  we  must  ground  our 
decision.  And  with  these  before  our  eyes,  must  we  not  fear  the  conse- 
quences to  literature,  if  its  existence  and  progress  depend  upon  the  exer- 
tions of  disappointed  and  ill-requited  genius  ?  Consider  the  situation 
of  that  man,  who,  conscious  of  his  own  power,  resolves  to  devote  himselt 
to  the  pursuit  of  letters,  to  become  an  author.  Supposing,  as  has  been 
the  case  with  thousands  who  have  preceded  him,  that  his  first  attempts  at 
authorship  are  unsuccessful.  His  expectations  are  disap])ointed ;  the 
promise  of  fame  and  of  support  is  withered  and  blighted;  the  world  looks 
upon  him  with  indifference;  a  rival  regards  him  with  contempt;  and  thft 
sharp  and  cold  words  of  the  critic  ring  in  his  ear  the  knell  of  his  first  li^ 
erary  offspring.  If  he  acquiesces  in  the  decision  of  his  judges,  it  is  onlj 
confessing  his  poor  claims  to  distinction.  If  not,  if  he  feels  that  tim< 
alone  can  pronounce  the  true  decision  upon  his  writings,  there  is  yet  n« 


348 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


resort  for  him,  if  he  would  obtain  support  from  the  profession  wliich  he 
iias  chosen,  but  to  conform  his  writings  to  the  popular  taste.  Follow  that 
man  to  his  closet,  and  witness  the  struggles  of  his  mind,  the  contest  be- 
tween inclination  and  interest.  The  one  prompts  him  to  follow  his  own 
o  enius  j  to  utter  the  dictates  of  his  own  feelings,  to  be  true  to  his  own 
nature.  The  other  sternly  requires  him  to  bow  to  the  critics,  to  yield  to 
the  decision  of  the  public,  and  in  future  to  lower  his  aspirations.  It  is 
^iere  that  we  would  most  deprecate  the  evils  of  making  authorship  a  pro- 
fession ;  that  we  would  warn  the  young  aspiraat;  for  literary  distinction, 
with  means  inadequate  to  his  support,  against  trusting  to  the  uncertain 
reward  of  his  exertions,  unless  he  is  willing  to  degrade  his  genius,  and 
.'•ubstitute  for  his  own  taste  and  inclinations,  those  of  the  capricious  and 
unthinking  multitude.  If,  instead  or  relying  upon  the  avails  of  author- 
ship, he  looks  to  another  profession  for  the  means  of  subsistence,  the 
thoughts  of  his  leisure  moments  may  be  given  to  the  woi-ld,  without  be- 
ing fashioned  and  moulded  by  the  opinions  of  other  men.  How  can  we 
expect  one  to  preserve  his  individuality  as  a  writer,  if  it  must  be  at  the 
expense  of  his  interests,  his  only  me^ns  of  support.  He  that  does  right 
only  from  interested  motives,  cannot  rank  among  men  of  the  highest 
moral  excellence ;  nor  can  the  author,  who  ^vrites  mainly  with  a  view 
to  his  ovm  support,  be  considered  the  most  vigilant  guardian  of  the 
cause  of  truth  and  letters. 

Nor  is  this  all.  When  an  author  has  resigned  his  right  of  self-guidance, 
.ind  has  taken  up  the  trade  of  miting  to  suit  the  public  taste  ;  whose  desire 
is  to  write  what  may  be  popular ;  the  kindred  desire  soon  manifests  itself 
of  increasing,  as  fast  as  possible,  the  number  of  his  works.  Names  are 
not  Avanting  to  prove,  that  this  has  often  been  the  case,  and  that,  too,  with 
some  of  the  most  distinguished  authors.  We  witness  it  in  the  thousand 
ephemeral  productions,  that  appear  but  to  attract  the  public  curiosity 
for  a  moment,  and  then  give  wav  to  works  as  worthless  and  short-lived 
as  themselves;  justifying  the  remark,  "that  authorship  immoderat^ely 
employed  makes  the  head  waste  and  the  heart  empty,  even  were  there  no 
other  and  worse  consequences ;  and  that  a  person  who  sends  away 
through  the  pen  and  the  press  every  thought,  the  moment  it  occurs  to 
him,  will,  in  a  short  time,  have  sent  all  away,  and  will  become  a  mere 
journeyman  of  the  printing  office,  a  compositor !  "  The  cause  of  hter- 
ature  is  the  cause  of  truth,  and  it  would  be  as  unnecessary  as  unwise 
to  trust  it  in  the  hands  of  those,  who  would  support  its  interest,  only 
so  far  as  they  coincided  with  their  own. 

We  would  willingly  join  in  the  sentiment  of  Professor  Henry,  that 
'Sve  need  an  order  of  men  of  lofty  intellectual  endowment,  an  intel- 
lectual high  priesthood  standing  within  the  inner  veil  of  the  tem- 
ple of  truth,  reverently  watcMng  before  the  holy  of  holies  for  its  divine 
revelations,  and  giving  them  out  to  the  lower  ministers  at  the  altar ; " 
but  if  this  priesthood  and  their  inferior  ministers  must  become  the  ser- 
vants and  dependents  of  the  multitude,  whom  it  is  their  great  office  to 
guide  and  direct,  their  power  and  their  usefulness  are  at  an  end.  Tha 
shrine  of  truth  had  better  be  intrusted  to  inferior  hands,  or  at  once  be 
desecrated  and  overthrown,  than  become  the  sanctuary  of  hypocisf 
and  error. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


349 


Example. 

A  LITERARY  DISCUSSION. 
[One  side  only.] 
The  Meiits  of  the  Histories  of  Hume  and  Lingard. 

False  opinions  in  morality,  or  mistaken  notions  in  philosophy,  are  not  so 
nuch  to  be  dreaded,  as  the  wilful  misrepresentations  of  the  historian, 
"Nullius  addictus  jnrare  in  verba  magistri,"  should  be  the  motto  of  every 
honest  historian ;  be  his  party  in  the  right  or  wrong,  he  is  to  state  "  the 
truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth."  Yet  there  is  no  one 
who  has  gi-eatcr  inducements  to  misrepresentations  than  the  historian. 
Party  feehngs  will  lead  him,  not  only  to  extenuate  the  guilt  and  apologize 
for  the  measures  of  liis  friends,  but  to  exaggerate  the  misconduct  of  his  ad 
versaries,  and  attribute  every  act  of  theirs  to  the  worst  of  motives.  But, 
should  he  have  the  good  foi-tune  to  be  of  no  political  party,  yet  the  animosi- 
ties of  the  church  are  no  less  bitter  than  those  of  the  state,  and  theological 
enmities  are  far  more  difficult  to  compose,  since  each  religious  sect  believes, 
that  the  voice  of  its  ov/n  partisans  is,  without  doubt,  the  voice  of  God. 

Almost  every  historian  has  been  influenced  in  one  or  the  other  of  these 
■ways.  Hume  and  Gibbon,  professing  to  be  the  enemies  of  all  rehgion,  have 
too  often  made  their  writings  the  channel  of  their  infidelity,  and  thrown 
out  their  doubts  and  insinuations  on  every  opportunity.  Hume,  again,  was 
led  away  by  his  love  of  kings  ;  he  was  too  great  a  favorer  of  the  doctrines 
of  passive  obedience  and  the  divine  right  of  kings  ;  too  much  of  a  monarch- 
ist to  feel  any  of  that  ardor,  which  glowed  in  the  breasts  of  Hampden  and 
Sydney ;  he  consequently  views  with  apathy  every  attempt  of  the  people  to 
be  free,  and  considers  every  assertion  of  popular  rights  as  an  invasion  of 
royal  prerogative. 

Neither  is  Dr.  Lingard  free  from  blame ;  indeed,  we  fear  that  he  has 
wholly  forfeited  the  character  of  an  honest  historian;  he  has  erred  and 
greatly  erred,  from  his  zeal  for  his  particular  religion.  Educated  in  the 
faith  of  the  Romish  church,  he  must  naturally  feel  a  love  and  a  reverence 
for  her  institutions  ;  a  priest  at  her  altar,  and,  as  we  hope,  sincerely  believ- 
ing in  the  doctrines  which  he  teaches,  he  must  feel  a  desire  to  defend  her 
from  the  attacks  and  calumnies  of  her  enemies.  But  his  zeal  has  carried 
him  too  far;  he  seems  to  think  himself  pledged  to  support,  not  only  her 
doctrines,  but  the  means  she  has  used  to  extend  these  doctrines,  and  uphold 
her  temporal  as  well  as  her  spiritual  authority ;  every  thing  in  the  farthest 
degree  related  to  Holy  Mother  Church  is,  in  his  eves,  sacred  and  inviolable, 
and  the  Popish  miracles,  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  and  the  Gun- 
powder Plot,  are  as  much  entitled  to  defence,  as  the  doctrines  of  transub- 
stantiation  and  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope. 

If  the  wish  to  do  away  the  prejudices  against  his  faith,  and  induce  men  to 
look  with  more  charity  upon  the  doctrines  of  his  sect,  furnished  any  motive 
to  Dr.  Lingard  for  writing  his  history,  he  has  entirely  failed  of  his  object  by 
graspmg  at  too  much ;  he  has  lost  the  whole,  he  has  weakened  his  side  and 
exposed  himself  to  the  ridicule  and  attacks  of  his  adversaries. 

If  he  had  merely  advocated  the  doctrines  of  his  church,  and  endeavored 
by  fair  argument  to  convince  men  of  their  truth,  although  we  cannot  allow 
an  historical  work  to  be  the  fit  place  for  theological  discussions,  we  should 
not  have  so  much  reason  to  complain.  But  when  he  espouses  the  cause  of 
error,  and  virtually  by  apologizing  for,  if  not  openly  by  vindicating,  supports 
those  measures,  which  every  man's  coascienca  must  t^U  him  admit  of  ne 
30 


350 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  C03IP0SITI0N. 


excuse,  —  when  he  defends  the  characters  of  those  raen  whom  the  voice  of 
all  ages  shice  their  owu  has  condemned  to  infamy,  we  must  either  doubt  his 
sinceritv  or  pity  his  understanaing.  People  are  now  too  enlightened  to 
justify  "those  means  which  centuries  ago  were  employed  to  compel  men's 
consciences.  It  is  idle  now  to  tell  a  man,  that  it  will  be  doing  God  service 
to  assassinate  his  neighbor,  because  he  will  not  hear  mass,  bow  to  the  host, 
and  acknowledge  lhel*ope  as  his  spiritual  father. 

Dr.  Liugard  takes  every  opportunity  to  exalt  the  merits  of  those  of  his 
own  sect,  and  to  speak  in  terms  of  indifference,  if  not  of  disparagement,  of 
every  distinguished  protestant.  While  Cardinal  Pole  is  the  subject  of  the 
highest  encomitmis,  Archbishop  Craumer  is  passed  as  a  man  of  but  littla 
tafents,  and  less  strength  of  character.  While  he  in  a  manner  defends  the 
cruelties  of  the  Marian  persecution,  and  vindicates  the  characters  of  Bonner 
and  Gardiner,  when  scarceiv  the  fires  of  Smithfield  and  the  piles  of  Piidley 
and  Latimer,  Hooper  and  Cranmer  are  extinguished,  he  complains  of  the 
restraints,  the  fines,  and  imprisonments,  which,  tmder  Elizabeth,  were  im 
posed  on  the  Popish  recusants.  "While  he  magnifies  every  indiscretion  of 
the  unfortunate  Anne  Bolleyn  into  a  crime,  and  would  load  her  charactei 
with  the  blackest  infamy,  he  extols  the  virtues  and  conceals  the  vices  of 
Mary  Stuart,  whose  only' virtue  Avas  her  weakness,  aud  whose  only  apology 
for  crime  her  vouth  and'  beautv.  ^    •  .  i 

Whatever  rnerit  there  may  be  in  Dr.  Lingard's  History,  either  of  ongmal 
itv  and  deep  and  extensive  research,  which  he  claims,  or  of  beauty  of  style 
and  pleasing  nan-ation,  which  have  been  allowed  him,  all  these,  however, 
will  bv  no  means  make  up  for  the  manifest  partiality  towards  the  CathoUcs, 
and  the  constant  prejudice  against  the  Protestant  faith,  which  prevail 
throuo-h  the  whole  work.  It  will  never  be  a  popular  history ;  it  may  be 
read  and  admired  at  St.  Omer's  and  Dovay,  it  may  be  found  in  the  library 
of  the  scholar,  but  never,  like  Hume,  in  every  parlor,  and  in  the  hands  of 
common  readers. 

When  the  historian  stravs  from  the  truth,  his  work  becomes  a  mere  work 
of  fiction,  inheriting  all  the  dulness  of  narration,  without  acquiring  any  of 
the  liveliness  of  romance  ;  it  can  neither  instruct  us  like  the  one,  nor  amuse 
us  like  the  other.  Facts  misrepresented,  however  they  may  be  skilfully 
adapted  to  our  particular  prejudices,  will  always  be  like  the  flattered  por- 
trait which  mav  e:i-atifv  our  vanity,  or  please  us  by  the  excellence  of  the 
coloring,  but  can  never  inspire  us  with  that  interest  that  .truth  alone  can 
impart. 


Example, 

or  A  DELIBERATIVE  DISCrSSION. 
PAP.T  I. 

« Libenl  Principles  as  affecting  the  Strength  of  Govei-nmentP 

The  opinion  that  the  strength  of  government  consists  in  its  being  placed 
as  far  bevondthe  influence  of  popular  commotions  as  possible,  is  one  of  long 
Btandinc,'  and.  when  rishtlv  understood,  is,  without  doubt,  perfectly  correct. 
But  I  do'verv  much  doubt  the  coi-rectness  of  that  exposition  of  it,  or  rather, 
of  that  pr-rversion-  of  it,  which  teaches  that  the  sti-ength  of  a  government 
consists  in  crushing  the  energies  of  the  people,  and  continiung  them  m  a 
state  of  abject  mental  and  moral  degradation  and  darkness.  Nay,  I  con- 
ceive such  a  mode  of  proceeding  to  be  entirely  incompatible  vrith  the 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


651 


itretigth  of  government.  For,  let  us  suppose  the  existence  of  such  a  state 
of  things  as  has  just  been  ahuded  to.  Let  us  suppose  a  people  involved  in 
a  barbarism  tlie  most  complete  and  gloomy  tliat  the  world  ever  knew  ;  and 
that  they  are  ruled  Avith  a  despotism,  compared  Avith  Avliich  the  Ottoman 
despotism  of  tlie  present  day  is  very  liberty.  I  allow,  that  so  long  as  they 
can  be  continued  in  a  state  of  such  miserable  slavery  and  darkness,  so 
long  will  tlie  government  stand,  and  stand  fii-mly.  But  who  will  answer  for 
It,  that  the  light  shall  never  bi-eak  in  ?  Who  Avill  vouch  that  they  shall 
never  rouse  from  this  moral  lethargy  ?  Who  is  there  that  dares  affirm  that 
this  Samson,  though  nov;  blinded,  and  shorn  of  his  strength  oppressed, 
mocked,  insulted,  will  not  at  some  future  period,  remote  it  may  be,  collect 
the  force  of  his  energies,  and  luui  doAvn  the  Avhole  fabric  of  tyranny  on  the 
devoted  heads  of  his  followers?  Station  a  guard,  if  you  please, "in  every 
house, — set  a  spy  over  every  man's  actions;  but  tell  me,  of  what  effect 
will  your  guards  and  your  spies  be  in  restraining  the  current  of  men's 
thoughts  ?  Were  they  possessed  of  no  other  means  of  coming  to  a  sense  of 
their  wrongs,  the  very  circumstance  that  there  are  in  the  communitv  those 
who  do  not  feel  tliese  wrongs,  (the  ministers  of  despotism,  j  this  very  circum 
Stance,  I  say,  would  inevitably,  tliough  it  may  be  slowly,  raise  in  the  minds 
of  the  people  reflections  on  their  own  condition  as  compared  with  that  of 
their  rulers.  It  will  then  be  but  a  short  process  for  them  to  begin  to  desire 
better  things ;  and  every  one  at  all  conversant  with  human  nature,  knows 
full  well  that  when  men  once  begin  to  desire  in  earnest,  it  is  not  long  ere 
they  make  an  effort  to  possess  themselves  of  the  object  of  their  wishes.  A 
5pn-it  of  insubordination  has  thus  arisen ;  and  now  tell  me,  student  of  his 
tory,  tell  me.  politician,  where  will  it  end  ?  Let  tyranny,  and  the  illiberal 
principles  which  liavc  hitherto  prevailed,  in  haughty  Assurance  of  their 
own  might,  tremble,  for  their  downfall  is  at  hand.  All  the  experience  of 
all  ages  shows  full  well,  that  when  a  people  are  once  roused  to  a  sense  of 
injuries,  opiates  more  powerful  than  man  can  tell  of,  are  required  to  lull 
them  to  a  second  sleep. 

If,  now,  there  be  any  need  of  examples  in  proof  of  Avhat  I  have  advanced, 
I  have  only  to  i-efer  you  to  the  reA'olution  Avhich  required  the  best  blood  of 
France  to  Avash  away  the  illiberal  principles  Avhichlaad  hitherto  SAvayed  the 
throne, — to  the  free  states  of  North  America,  A\^ho  OAve  their  independence 
to  the  blind  and  narroAv  policy  Avhicli  had  actuated  the  British  monarchy 
ever  since  the  dijys  of  the  first  tlames, — to  Greece,  the  last  strong  hold,  Avest 
of  the  Dardanelles,  of  those  who  once  spread  the  terror  of  their  arms  from 
beyond  the  farthest  stretch  of  the  Caucasian  range  to  the  most  distant 
shores  of  remotest-  Europe ;  but  Avhose  oppressive  and  impolitic  principles 
are  noAv,  Ave  confidently  trust,  about  to  force  them,  a  disgraced  and  despised 
race,  Avith  a  Aveak  and  irresolute  government,  into  a  corner  of  the  earth,  a 
terrible  monument  to  all  nations  of  the  insufficiency  of  intolerance  for  tire 
support  of  poAver. 

But,  Avhile  in  a  government  established  on  illiberal  principles,  there  are 
the  most  fonuidable  springs  of  ruin,  I  believe  that  principles,  the  opposite  of 
these,  contribute,  more  than  any  other  cause,  to  the  strength  and  stability 
of  government.  It  is  supposed,  of  course,  that  the  people  are  enlightened  to 
the  advantages  and  necessity  of  government  in  some  shape  or  other ;  and  to 
suppose  that  they  Avould  be  Avilling  subjects  of  a  power  Avhose  constant  aim 
was  to  oppress  and  restrain  their  energies,  to  reduce  their  prerogatiA^es,  to 
obstruct  their  interest,  and  to  hinder  their  advancement  in  moral  and 
intellectual  improvement;  or,  to  suppose  that  they  Avould  become  Avilling 
instruments  of  destruction  to  a  gOA'crnment,  which,  keeping  pace  Avith  the 
progress  of  ciA'ilization,  and  the  spirit  of  the  age,  Avould  secure  to  them 
every  privilege,  in  as  high  a  degree  as  Avould  be  possible  for  them  to  enjoy, 
would  be  to  deny  the  very  circumstance  Avhich  has  just  been  taken'  for 
granted,  namely,  an  enlightened  condition  of  the  people.  So  far,  indeed, 
from  overturning  the  gOA'ernment,  their  main  solicitude,  unless  their  motirea 


352 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


of  conduct  were  strangely  at  variance  with  those  which  usually  actuate 
men  in  other  cases,  would  be  as  to  the  means  of  supporting  it  in  Its  fullest 
strength  ;  —  so  far  from  discarding  it,  their  chief  anxiety  Avould  be  lest  other 
powers,  jealous  of  the  influence  of  such  an  example  on  their  subjects,  should 
endeavor  to  WTest  it  from  them. 

It  is,  in  fact,  but  the  futile  imaginings  of  a  disordered  brain,  which  see  ic 
the  effect  of  liberal  principles  any  thing  approaching  to  the  dissolution  of 
government.  For  what  are  liberal  principles  but  a  disposition  to  keep  pace 
with  the  spii-it  of  improvement  which  is  constantly  going  on  among  men  ? 
And,  can  any  one,  in  his  sober  senses,  aver  that  good  government  and 
general  civilization  are  things  so  entirely  incompatible,  that  the  one  cannot 
be  enjoyed  but  at  the  expense  of  the  other?  That  vigor  and  stability  in 
national  councils  are  ever,  from  their  very  nature,  inconsistent  with  the 
progress  of  the  mind  ?  That  if  men  insist  on  moving  onward  in  the  march 
of  intellect,  they  must  be  content  to  sacrifice  to  this  object  every  thing  like 
a  firm  and  well-regulated  state  administration  ?  And  so,  on  the  contrary, 
if  they  wish  to  be  preserved  from  constant  anarchy  and  civil  contention, 
they  must  be  satisfied  to  remain  in  barbarism  and  degradation  ?  Such  doc- 
trines are  too  monstrous  to  be  hai'bored  for  a  moment ;  but  yet,  I  defy  any 
one  to  deny  that  they  are  the  doctrines  of  those  who  contend  that  liberal 
principles  are  incompatible  with  the  strength  of  government.  For  myself, 
were  such  my  belief,  I  would  utterly  discard  all  allegiance  to  society.  I 
would  betake  myself  to  the  obscurest  corner  of  the  earth ;  and  there,  dwell 
mg  aloof  from  the  world,  and  inaccessible  to  any  of  my  race,  I  would  prose 
^ute  the  culture  of  my  understanding  and  m.y  heart  by  myself,  and  undis 
turbed  by  that  connexion  with  my  species,  which  woukl,  according  to 
these  doctrines,  involve  my  mind  in  ignorance  and  darkness.  My  name 
should  be  no  moi-e  known"^ among  all  mankind.  I  would  live  alone;  and 
none  other  should  rule  over  me  than  the  Almighty. 


PART  II. 

Liberal  Primiples  as  affecting  the  Strength  of  GovemmenV^ 

That  the  rights  which  nature  has  bestowed  upon  man  may  be  protected 
and  enjoyed,  he  finds  it  necessary  to  subject  himself  to  laws,  and  to  part 
with  some  portion  of  his  original  "freedom,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  rights 
and  freedom  of  his  fellow-men.  The  social  system,  of  which  he  is  a  member, 
entitles  him  to  other  rights,  without  which,  civil  liberty  is  not  enjoyed,  and 
the  ends  for  which  society  was  formed  are  not  obtained.  Those  principles 
of  government  are  liberal,  which  secure  to  man  the  rights  of  nature  and 
of  society.  They  are  the  principles  which  conduce  to  the  happiness  and 
prosperity  of  a  nation  ;  but  it  has  been  observed  by  political  writers,  and 
the  observation  has  been  so  frequently  made  that  it  appears  almost  an  axiom, 
that  those  very  principles  have  a  powerful  effect  in  weakening  government. 
Reason  and  experience  confirm  the  remark.  Though  history  has  often  and 
clearly  proved  to  us  that  man  is  unwilling  to  be  oppressed  by  man,  and  will 
not  sacrifice  his  just  rights,  when  the  possession  of  them  will  not  injure 
others,  he  has  unfortunately  seldom  restrained  himself  from  abusing  as  soon 
as  he  begins  to  enjoy  them,  till  he  finally  subjects  himself  to  oppression 
which  he' endeavored  to  escape. 

It  is  in  their  liability  to  abuse,  that  the  great  danger  of  liberal  principles 
is  seen.  To  en  joy  their  advantages  much  precaution  must  be  taken  against 
their  evils.  TheV  are  liable  to  be  carried  to  excess.  To  establish  the 
proper  security,  and  to  mark  out  the  proper  limits  for  them,  s^em  almost 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


S53 


impossible.  The  -work  T/ill  be  imperfect.  The  examples  of  ancient  gov 
ernments  too  plainly  prove  tliat  it  was  so  in  them.  Faction  and  corruption 
were  the  constant  companions  of  liberty,  continually  distracting  and  en 
feebiing  government.  They  soon  exerted  their  pernicious  influence,  when 
Athens  began  to  enjoy  that  liberal  principle,  which  rendered  the  voice  of  the 
people  the  law  by  which  they  were  to  be  governed.  That  free  principle 
which  declared  the  proud  patricians  and  humble  plebeians  of  Rome  equal, 
and  gave  the  latter  the  enjoyment  of  public  offices  in  company  ^yith  the 
former,  added  not  to  the  strength  of  government.  We  find  that  the  interval 
of  tranquillity  was  but  short,  and  that  the  tumults  of  the  people,  and  the 
opprsssion  of  ambitious  citizens  soon  followed.  Sylla  was  the  favorite,  and 
became  the  tyrant  of  the  people. 

"  So  every  scope  by  the  immoderate  use 
Leads  to  restraiut." 

The  principal  cause  of  the  fall  of  the  republic  of  Eome,  has  been  ascribed 
to  the  excess  of  power  which  the  favor  of  the  people  too  often  intrusted  to 
unworthy  hands. 

As  liberal  principles  allow  the  people  some  degree  of  power,  the  question 
may  with  good  reason  be  asked,  whether  that  power  will  content  them ; 
whether  it  will  not  be  intentionally  abused,  or  imprudently  exercised  ? 

They  are  forgetful  of  the  relation  in  which  they  stand  to  each  other ;  of 
the  responsibility  under  which  they  are  placed.  Ignorant  or  thoughtless  of 
the  benefit  of  the  whole,  which  the  privileges  of  each  individual  enable  him 
to  render,  they  too  readily  sacrifice  the  good  of  the  public  to  their  own  par- 
tiality for  some  flattering  demagogue.  They  are  not  sensible  of  the  true 
value  of  the  liberal  principle  which  is  put  in  their  hands,  but  they  are  fully 
aware  that  they  possess  power,  and  "will  misapply  their  possession  to  gratify 
themselves,  at  the  expense  of  the  public  safety,  and  the  public  happiness. 
Such  is  the  abuse  of  the  right  of  suffrage,  an  abuse  to  which  the  privilege  is 
always  exposed,  hoAvever  well  informed  the  people  may  be  of  the  true  design 
of  society,  and  of  the  happiness  which  it  is  in  their  power  to  confer. 

We  need  not  examine  ancient  history,  and  the  imperfect  constitutions  of 
old  governments,  to  be  convinced  that  free  principles  will  be  dangerous. 
The  history  of  later  times  will  give  us  the  same  information.  Will  not  our 
own  days  teach  us  the  same  lesson  ?  We  have  seen  the  dangers  of  the  press. 
In  the  words  of  one  of  our  own  writers,  "Its  freedom  will  be  abused.  It  is 
a  precious  pest,  and  necessary  mischief,  that  has  spoiled  the  temper  of  our 
aberty,  and  may  shorten  its  life." 

Another  effect  to  be  feared  from  liberal  principles,  is  a  vrant  of  respect 
tow^ards  those  who  make  and  administer  the  laws.  If  the  people  are, 
directly  or  indirectly,  the  makers  of  the  laws,  do  they  the  more  willingly 
submit  to  them  !  The  magistrates  \vhom  they  have  created,  they  will  look 
upon  as  their  equals,  but  equality  may  be  forgotten  by  the  magistrates 
They  will  be  approved  by  some,  and  disapproved  by  others.  There  wik 
arise  opposition  of  party  to  party,  and  oppression  of  the  one  by  the  other 
The  piirposes  of  government  are  forgotten,  while  each  looks  with  jealousj 
upon  his  opponent.  There  is  none  of  that  feeling  of  awe  and  revei-enc* 
which  the  authority  of  an  hereditary  ruler  inspires,  whose  cradle  is  a  throne, 
of  whose  oppression  it  is  dangerous  to  complain,  and  the  success  of  resist 
ance  doubtful. 

It  is  the  foundation  of  the  political  theory  of  a  distinguished  wi-iter,  thai 
honor  is  the  support  of  a  monarchy,  fear  of  a  despotism,  and  virtue  of  a 
republic.  The  strongest  governments  place  their  security  in  principle! 
which  awe  or  captivate  their  subjects.  They  take  advantage  of  every 
mode  which  will  excite  terror  or  dehght.  The  will  of  a  despot  bows  dowc 
the  victims  of  ignorance  with  fear  and  trembling,  v.dio  hardly  dare  to  knov, 
that  nature  has  bestowed  upon  them  faculties  and  rights,  which  were  givei 
for  their  happiness,  or  the  strength  of  govermnent  is  derived  from  a  fountait 


S54 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


of  honor,  and  consists  in  ornaments  of  silver  and  gold,  in  the  stars  and  grand 
crosses  of  nobility,  or  in  the  amusements  by  which  men  are  charmed  into 
submission.  We  may,  then,  say,  though  in  a  different  sense  from  the  origi 
nal,  "  Amusement  is  the  happiness  of  those  who  cannot  think."  But  in 
what  does  the  strength  of  liberal  governments  consist  ?  In  something  of  far 
higher  authority  than  the  will  of  any  mortal ;  in  something  more  ennobhng 
than  all  other  honor ;  in  the  only  true  divine  right  of  sc>vereignty,  the  virtue 
of  the  people. 

This  is  a  strong  foundation ;  but  is  it  not  one  which  is  more  to  be  desired 
than  expected  ?  It  is  httle  to  the  honor  of  human  nature  that  the  principle 
of  fear  has  been  found  to  have  a  more  powerful  influence  than  the  principle 
of  virtue.  Such  has  been  the  case ;  and  liberal  principles,  from  the  wan* 
of  power  to  preserve  them  in  their  purity,  have  too  often  produced  effects 
which  it  seemed  contrary  to  their  nature  to  produce.  Though  they  may 
be  beneficial  to  themselves,  they  will  be  corrupted,  unless  there  is  that 
degree  of  intellectual  and  moral  cultivation  in  the  community  which  we  are 
not  justified  in  expecting.  It  is  true,  that  there  is  httle  hope  of  virtue  and 
learning  among  a  people  without  liberal  j-rinciples  to  encourage  and  support 
them.  Some  portion  of  freedom  is  certainly  necessary  before  virtue  can  be 
expected  to  display  herself,  and  exert  her  influence  openly,  _and_  before  the 
mind  can  exercise  to  advantage  the  faculties  with  which  it  is  gifted.  _  But 
does  it  follow  that  this  liberty  will  always  reform  9.  community  ?  Liberal 
principles  may  be  adopted  too  suddenly,  before  the  character  of  a  people  is 
prepared  for  them,  and  then,  while  they  produce  not  the  happiness  which 
they  otherwise  Avould  produce,  will  create  anarchy  or  oppression. 

Thus  it  appears  that  some  information  and  virtue  are  required  for  the 
protection  of  Hberty.  But,  vv^hen  froe  principles  are  established,  and  they 
are  producing  contentment,  virtue  may  not  be  secured,  may  not  be  pre- 
served. All  the  effect  which  fear  has  over  the  mind  is  removed,  and  the 
faculties  are  roused  to  life  and  exertion  from  a  state  of  tranquilHty,  but  a 
tranquillity  hke  that  of  the  tombs.  To  escape  from  the  terror  of  despotism, 
is  a  blessing ;  but  there  is  danger  of  the  slavery  of  vice.  Virtue  is,  indeed, 
encouraged  by  liberty  to  come  forward  to  the  light,  and  to  exercise  herself 
for  the  benefit  of  man ;  but  vice  meets  with  like  encouragement,  and  will 
readily  seize  its  opportunity  to  gratify  itself,  and  to  exert  its  corrupting 
influence. 

The  unfortunate  terminations  of  many  revolutions  in  favor  of  liberty,  are 
to  be  found  in  the  want  of  virtue  and  knowledge  among  the  people,  who 
are  consequently  incapable  of  governing  themselves. 

Since,  then,  liberal  principles  have  been  so  constantly  abused,  unless  the 
people  are,  in  a  high  degree,  virtuous  and  enhghtened,  we  must  look  for 
strength  to  the  checks  provided  against  the  abuse  of  power  in  the  separate 
departments  of  government ;  not  to  the  agreeable,  though  poisonous  prm 
ciples  of  liberty,  but  to  the  antidote  which  is  constantly  admimstered 
against  their  dangerous  effects. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  355 


XCIV 
DISPUTATIONS. 

Disputations  are  exercises  in  wliich.  parties  reason  m  op- 
povsition  to  each  other  on  some  question  proposed.  They  are 
verbal  contests  respecting  the  truth  of  some  fact,  opinion, 
proposition,  or  argument. 

As  Uterary  exercises,  they  are  principally  of  two  kinds.  Phi- 
losophical, and  Forensic  Disputations. 

Philosophical  Disputations  are  those  in  which  some  philo- 
sophical fact,  principle  or  theory  is  discussed. 

Forensic  Disputations  are  those  in  which  some  legal,  moral 
or  political  subject  is  argued. 

Example  1. 

OP  A  FORENSIC  DISPUTATION. 
PART  I. 

Whether  Popular  Superstitions  or  Enlightened  Opinion,  be  most  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  Poetical  Literature. 

Eable  and  superstition  form  so  large  a  part  of  the  ground-work  of  an- 
cient poetry,  and  are  so  intimately  connected  v/ith  that  of  all  succeeding 
ages,  that  a  partial  investigation  of  this  subject  might  lead  us  to  very  er- 
roneous conclusions.  From  the  bare  consideration  of  this  fact,  we  might 
be  induced  to  give  assent  to  that  opinion,  which  would  make  superstition 
indispensable  to  the  production  of  poetry,  and  which  would  thereby  con- 
fine its  progress  to  a  certain  period  in  the  civilization  of  the  world.  We 
might  as  well,  however,  consider  the  dross  as  a  constituent  of  the  virgin 
gold,  as  suppose  that  the  imperfections  and  errors  connected  with  poetry 
were  essential  to  the  divine  art. 

Homer  has  left  a  monument  of  genius  which  will  be  read  and  admired 
by  remote  ages  yet  to  come ;  but  will  it  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  those 
prodigies  of  former  times,  the  history  of  which  alone  remains  to  them,  for 
which,  in  their  time,  they  can  find  no  parallel  or  counterpart  ?  Will,  then, 
his  poetry  be  viewed  as  the  production  of  an  art  peculiar  to  former  ages, 
but  in  those  times  unknown ;  a  shadow,  an  illusion,  which  has  vanished 
before  the  increasing  light  of  civilization ;  or  will  it  not  rather  be  admired 
and  venerated,  as  one  of  the  earliest  fountains  to  which  posterity  can  trace 
the  magnificent  stream,  which,  in  their  age,  may  be  extending  its  healthy 
and  invigorating  influence  through  all  the  channels  of  society  ?  Yet  the 
idea  that  superstitious  opinions  arc  essentially  important  to  the  production 
of  poetry,  would  exclude  the  possibility  of  any  great  progress  in  the  art. 
Since  error  must  gradually  disappear  before  knowledge  and  civilization, 
and  since  superstition  must  vanish  wherever  Christianity  sheds  its  blessed 


356 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


influence,  it  follows,  that  poetry  must,  some  day,  in  the  progi-ess  of  the 
world,  he  seen  in  the  decline.  The  possihility  of  this,  v/e  should  he  un 
willing  for  a  moment  to  admit.  Poetry  is  not  the  peculiar  characteristic 
of  a  rude  and  imperfect  state  of  society ;  it  is  not  a  plant  which  can  thrive 
only  in  the  soil  of  ignorance  ;  on  the  contrary,  an  art,  which  I  do  not  say, 
keeps  pace  with  the  improvement  of  society,  but  is  destined  rather  to  precede 
it ;  to  be,  as  it  were,  man's  Guide  to  indefinite  advancement.  In  proof  of 
our  position,  we  need  only  refer  to  the  elevating  influence  of  poetry  itself; 
an  influence  admitted  by  all,  and  one  which  every  breast  has  more  or  less 
experienced.  The  poet's  influence  is  through  the  feehngs,  and,  as  man 
kind  in  their  nature  have  been,  and  always  will  be,  essentially  the  same, 
the  true  poet,  in  the  exercise  of  his  profession,  has  the  key  to  the  sensibili- 
ties and  affections  of  his  fellow-men ;  when  he  touches  the  strings  of  his 
k  lyre,  it  is  only  to  produce  those  notes  with  which  every  bosom  throbs  in 

unison.  It  becomes,  then,  an  easy  task  for  him  to  instruct  and  to  elevate,  to 
call  man  away  from  the  absorbing  influence  of  worldly  passions  and  pur- 
suits, to  a  view  bf  what  is  most  elevated  in  his  own  nature,  and  most  noble 
in  the  creation  around  him,  to  wean  him  from  the  present,  and  fit  him  for 
the  future.  This  exertion  of  a  refining  and  elevating  influence  is  a  pre 
rogative  of  the  poet  admitted  bij  all;  hut  must,  we  also  believe,  that,  when 
he  is  most  successful  in  his  glorious  ofiice,  he  is  at  the  same  time  dimin- 
ishing the  power  and  will  in  his  fellow-men  to  appreciate  or  countenance 
his  works. 

The  poet's  peculiar  liberty  and  privilege  is  to  give  free  wing  to  his  im- 
agination ;  a  liberty  allowed  by  every  one.  In  poetry,  indeed,  we  look 
for  fiction,  though  its  legitimate  object  be  truth.  Popular  superstitions, 
therefore,  aflbrd  an  easy  and  ample  subject  for  the  poet's  pen,  and  always 
must,  to  some  degree,  enhance  the  beauty  and  attraction  of  his  works. 
.For  what  are  popular  superstitions  but  the  dreams  of  the  imagination 
perhaps  the  fantasies  of  the  poet's  own  brain  1  It  is  asserted  by  some 
va-iters,  that  the  Greeks  were  indebted  for  their  mythology  to  the  wntmgs 
of  Hesiod  and  Homer ;  that  their  religious  notions  were  vague  and  un- 
settled until  the  fertile  imagination  of  their  poets  devised  for  them  a  sys- 
tem of  worship.  Indeed,  we  may  safely  believe,  that  a  great  proportion, 
if  not  most  of  the  superstitions,  which  have  prevailed  in  the  world,  have 
sprung  into  existence  at  the  poet's  calling.  When  this  is  not  the  case, 
they  owe  their  origin  to  the  disordered  imagination  of  some  less-gifted 
mind.  From  the  wonders  and  beauties  of  nature,  then,  one  of  the  poet's 
most  fertile  themes,  he  can  no  longer  receive  inspiration,  when  the  float 
in"-  visions  of  superstition  no  longer  surround  them;  when  belief  in  that 
which  ignorance,  or  the  fancy  of  former  poets,  has  generated,  has  been 
resip-ncd  for  more  rational  opinions.  The  genius  of  poetry  forbids  such  a 
sentiment.  Does  the  flower  which  has  blossomed  and  faded  from  the 
creation  become  destitute,  in  the  poet's  eye,  of  poetical  associations,  be 
cause  he  cannot  credit  the  imaginative  belief  of  ancient  bards,  that  Flora 
has  it  in  her  care,  while  the  sporting  Zephyrus  fans  its  petals,  parched  by 
the  mid-day  sun  1  Is  the  distant  planet  less  worthy  a  place  in  the  poet's 
thought,  because  its  secret  influence,  v/hether  good  or  evil,  can  no  more 
be  credited  ?  Does  "  old  ocean  "  lose  any  of  its  sublimity,  because  it  is  no 
longer,  even  in  the  poet's  mind,  peopled  by  the  Tritons,  Nereids,  and 
father  Neptune?  Such,  and  like  notions,  were  the  theme  of  ancient  poets 
and  their  countrymen  gave  willing  credence  to  their  tales.  The  viodern 
bard  might  as  well  stalk  the  streets  in  the  toga  and  the  buskin,  as  bring 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION*  357 

into  bis  lines  the  dreams  of  heathen  mythology.  Yet  he  is  not  circum- 
scribed by  narrow  bounds,  because  he  may  not  follow,  in  the  regions  of 
imagination,  the  wild  excursions  of  the  ancients,  or  because  his  own  light 
fancy  may  soar  no  higher  than  less  active  reason  can  accompany  her. 

The  true  poet,  so  far  from  requiring,  will  decline  the  guidance  or  dic- 
tation of  his  predecessor.  It  is  his  office  and  his  pride  to  present  his  sub- 
ject in  a  novel  and  interesting  view ;  to  shed  upon  it  new  light,  and  invest 
It  with  additional  attractions.  If  we  admit  this,  we  need  have  no  appre- 
hensions that  the  muse  will  be  invoked  in  vain,  though  she  may  not  he 
courted,  as  in  former  days. 

We  Avould  not  willingly  detract  from  the  merits  of  ancient  poetry,  or 
that  of  any  bard  that  has  yet  dawne(l  upon  the  world ;  but  as  we  would 
not  limit  the  progress  of  any  art  or  science  by  the  ad vancement_  which 
they  may  have  reached  in  former  times,  so  we  would  not  circumscribe  the 
"  divinest  of  all  arts  "  -within  the  narrow  boundary  of  a  few  centuries  in 
the  world's  infancy. 


PART  II. 

Whether  Popular  Superstitions  or  Enlightened  Opinion  he  most  favoj'oble 
to  the  growth  of  Poetical  Literature. 

"  Good  sense,"  says  Coleridge,  "  is  the  body  of  poetic  genius,  fancy  its 
drapery,  motion  its  hfe,  and  imagination  its  soul,"  —  and  it  is  the  remark 
of  one  who  had  learned  to  analyze  with  exactness  the  feelings  of  the  poet. 
Let  us  see  how  well  examination  justifies  the  definition.  W( .  may  con- 
sider the  subject  under  two  heads  :  —  1st.  Do  superstition  and  enlightened 
opinion  united  promote  poetical  literature  1  2d.  If  they  are  not  capable 
of  being  thus  united,  do  our  ordinary  occupations  promote  that  literature "? 

The  first  point  we  shall  not  strive  to  establish.  Popular  superstitions 
are  very  few  at  the  present  day.  Intelligence  is  widely  dilFused  ;  books 
and  readers  are  multiplying,  and  enlightened  opinion  is  setting  up  a  very- 
wide  dominion.  It  is  now  thought  impossible  for  superstition  and  educa 
tion  to  exist  together.  Then  are  our  ordinary  occupations,  in  the  second 
place,  favorable  to  poetical  literature  ?  Admitting  that  enlightened 
opinion  is  gaining  the  ascendency,  let  us  see  whether  it  favors  the  imagin- 
ation, —  whether  a  prevailing  shrewdness,  and  the  common  alFaii-s  of  Hfe, 
are  sufficient,  without  the  aid  of  superstition,  for  poets  and  novelists. 

Life  is  made  tip  of  realities;  our  wants,  though  continually  supplied, 
are  continually  to  be  supplied.  The  atmosphere  of  the  world  is  the  chil- 
ling atmosphere  of  reality,  exertion,  and  disappointment.  There  is  little 
poetry  in  common  hfe;  little  poetry  in  unrewarded  exei'tion,  or  unde 
served  oppression,  or  disappointed  ambition.  Yet  these  make  an  essen 
tial  part  of  life,  and  they  are  pi'ecisely  what  give  such  a  matter- of- fac':, 
anpoetical  tone  to  most  minds.  How  many  feel,  as  they  follow  where 
their  duties  direct  them,  any  thing  of  poetry  or  romance  1  Are  not  all 
disheartened  at  times  by  the  plain  realities  of  their  lot  ?  Notwithstanding 
many  happy  connexions,  we  sometimes  feel  ourselves,  both  as  individuals 
and  nations,  too  much  fettered,  and  want  something  to  delight  and  en- 
noble, as  well  as  keep  us  alive.  This  deficiency  is  suppHed  by  the  emo 
tions  springing  from  popular  delusion ;  which,  stealing  like  a  mist  over 


358 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


the  picture  before  us,  softens  the  whole  landscape.  The  restraints  of 
society  may  fetter  poetic  genius,  but  the  vision  and  the  faculty  divine  cir« 
cunistances  cannot  entirely  repress  ;  whenever  it  is  curbed  by  the  world 
popular  superstition  frees  it  from  its  bondage,  and  kindles  again  the 
trampled  spark. 

What  we  degrade  as  superstition,  is,  in  tnith,  the  very  soul  of  poetry, 
and  no  more  separable  from  it  than  soul  from  body.  It  may  fail  of  its 
object,  and  make  gross  what  ought  to  be  pure,  but  the  spirit  that  would 
condemn  superstition  on  such  grounds,  would  spurn  a  picture  of  the 
Madonna  because  the  same  pencil  might  have  delineated  ^  vixen.  Super- 
stition springs  from  the  imagination  and  fancy;  poetical  literature  is 
directly  addressed  to  these  powers  of  mind,  and  cannot  flourish  -without 
them.  Philosophy  and  history  are  not  dependent  on  them  ;  if  they  state 
facts,  and  draw  just  conclusions,  their  ends  are  attained.  Superstition,  on 
the  contrary,  is  an  embodying  of  the  grand,  the  tender,  the  territic,  as 
suits  the  mind,  —  the  creating,  as  it  were,  a  world  of  passions  and  percep- 
tions too  spiritual  for  common  life,  and  yet  too  natural  not  to  be  exercised. 
Now,  is  not  all  this  poetiy  in  its  true  sense  1 

Every  imaginative  or  superstitious  nation  has  abounded  in  poetical 
literature.  Their  peculiarities  of  thought  assist  the  author,  besides  culti- 
vating the  taste  and  exercising  the  imagination  of  the  reader.  The  suc- 
cess of  modern  poetic  literature,  notwithstanding  our  want  of  superstition, 
is  not  unfavorable  to  this  view.  A  change  has  been  effected  in  this  kind 
of  witing  coiTesponding  to  the  extension  of  education.  The  novelist  now 
draws  from  human  nature  rather  than  superstition ;  formerly  materials 
were  abundant  and  fanciful,  but  they  were  not  employed  with  discretion 
Perhaps  the  magnificence  of  Milton  will  be  adduced  as  an  instance  of  no 
superstition  in  the  author,  and  requiring  none  in  the  reader.  But  Miltons 
adorn  every  age.  Milton's  poetry  has  been  compared  to  the  ocean ;  and 
although  the  ocean  is  sublime  in  its  own  native  grandeur,  yet  the  beauty 
of  the  inland  stream  — the  lesser  poetic  strain  — is  increased  when  it 
sounds  through  the  hidden  ravine,  and  is  overshadowed  by  the  dark 
foliage  of  superstition. 

Observe  the  untutored  inhabitants  of  the  mountain,  —  where  the  link  is 
shortest  between  nature  and  nature's  God,  —  where  every  cliff  is  invested 
with  some  popular  legend,  and  every  valley  and  lake  and  hill-top  may  tell 
some  tale  of  fancy,  some  dreaming  of  speculation,  —  observe  these,  as 
they  pay  there  the  vows  of  a  wild  superstition,  and  do  you  not  contem- 
plate the  very  essence  of  poetry  1  Is  there  no  poetry  in  superstition  ? 
Then  bid  Macbeth  and  Hamlet  be  forgotten,  and  consign  "  the  Wizard  of 
the  North  "  to  an  unheeded  tomb.  Call  the  dreams  of  his  fancy  the  fol- 
lies of  disease,  and  pity  them.  If  we  deny  the  poetical  nature  of  super- 
stition, what  shall  be  said  of  those  places  where  the  genius  of  Scott  has 
revelled  till  it  has  hallowed  the  very  traditions  of  ignorance  1  Can  we 
make  powerless  the  wand  which,  in  Shakspeare's  hand,  called  the  mur- 
dered to  the  banquet,  harassed  the  guilty  conscience,  and  urged  the  ir 
resolute  to  revenge  1 

A  good  proof  that  mere  enlightenment  does  little  for  imagmative 
wi-iters,  may  be  found  in  this  country.  We  are  wanting  in  popular 
legends,  and,  be  it  said  with  deference  to  wise  opponents,  wantmg  m 
poetical  literature.  Our  poets  and  novelists  are  few,  and  feel  too  little  the 
inspiration  of  an  American  home.  Our  national  character  may  be  the 
better  for  this ;  but  our  pursuits  have  made  us,  as  a  people,  vastly  unpo 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


359 


Ctical.  This  is  readily  accoxmted  for.  We  have  been  accustomed  from 
childhood,  and  still  continue,  to  regard  chiefly  what  is  necessary  in  life. 
Interest  and  thrift  are  graven  on  every  thing  in  America ;  the  waves  and 
the  winds  are  unwelcome  without  the  expected  gain ;  and  the  cliff  and 
stream,  however  beautiful,  are  unconnected  with  superstitious  legends 
Do  not  the  words  of  one  of  our  poets  apply  to  many  of  his  countrymen 

"  The  churl  who  holds  it  heresy  to  think, 
Who  loves  no  music  but  the  dollar's  clink, 
Who  laughs  to  scorn  the  Avisdom  of  the  schools, 
And  deems  the  first  of  poets  first  of  fools, 
Who  never  found  what  good  from  science  grew, 
Save  the  grand  truth  that  one  and  one  are  two. 
And  marvels  Bowditch  o'er  a  book  should  pore, 
Unless  to  make  those  two  turn  into  four: 
Who,  placed  where  Catskill's  foreheaa  greets  the  sky, 
Grieves  that  such  quarries  all  unhewn  should  lie, 
Or,  gazing  where  Niagara's  torrents  thrill. 
Exclaims,  '  A  monstrous  stream  to  turn  a  mill  I '  " 

Yes,  even  at  this  moment  is  the  demon  of  utilitarianism  throwing  hia 
bonds  around  the  cataract  of  Niagara,  —  to  scoop  with  a  clam-shell  the 
wicked,  waste  water,  and  substitute  for  the  ton-ent's  roar,  the  soul  thril- 
ling music  of  the  clapper  to  a  grist-mill !  If  this  is  plain  common-sense, 
it  is  not  poetry.  True,  a  few  of  the  red  man's  race  remain  to  wonder  at 
the  taste  which  can  so  misuse  their  country ;  but  their  spirit  has  been 
broken,  and  they  are  strangers  in  the  land. 

What,  then,  is  the  use  of  popular  superstition  1  Not  to  bind  man  to  a 
reverence  of  folly,  nor  to  exact  undeserved  admiration,  but  to  soften  his 
nature,  by  exercising  some  of  his  higher  powers  and  sensibilities,  and  thus 
make  mind  minister  to  happiness. 

PHILOSOPHICAL  DISPUTATION.  >: 

Example. 

[One  side  only  is  presented.] 

Whether  Intellectual  Improvement  be  favorable  to  the  Productions  of 
Imagination. 

Every  age  and  every  nation  has  its  distinguished  men.  It  has  had  its 
heroes,  poets,  orators,  philosophers,  and  statesmen.  WTiether  we  go  to 
the  abodes  of  civilization,  or  to  the  haunts  of  savages,  we  shall  find  men 
who  are  properly  the  master  spirits  of  their  age,  and  who  are  destined  to 
give  direction  to  the  opinions  and  actions  of  their  fellow  men.  This  arises 
from  the  very  constitution  of  society,  and  each  of  the  several  classes  of 
which  it  is  composed  are  in  some  degree  dependent  on  each  other. 
The  fame  of  the  hero  depends  on  the  historian  and  poet,  and,  in  return, 
the  achievements  of  the  former  afford  the  most  fertile  themes  for  the 
latter.  Some  periods,  however,  are  more  favorable  than  others  for  the 
developement  of  a  particular  kind  of  talent.  The  ancients  recognized  an 
iron,  a  bronze,  and  a  golden  age,  and  no  impartial  reader  of  history  can 
doubt  the  justness  of  such  a  classification.  The  golden  age  was  the  age 
when  literature  and  the  arts  flourished,  when  civilization  had^  gained  the 
ascendency  over  barbarism,  and  when  the  rights  of  the  individual  had 
begun  to  be  respected. 


360 


AIDS  TO   ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


There  is,  undoubtedly,  an  opinion  prevalent,  that  intellectual  improTe 
Kent  is  unfavorable  to  the  imagination,  —  that  the  reasoning  power 
cannot  be  cultivated  without  impairing  it.  But  such  an  opinion  has  m 
foundation  in  fact,  and  is  entitled  to  no  more  respect  than  a  thousand 
other  notions  that  are  handed  down  from  age  to  age,  and  are  regarded  as 
true.  The  enemies  of  free  government  tell  us,  that  learnmg  cannot 
flourish  where  all  are  acknowledged  free  and  equal ;  that  learned  men  _ 
cannot  grow  up  except  iu  the  sunshine  of  royal  favor:  and  that  religion 
cannot  work  its  benisn  etFects  except  on  an  ignorant  commumty,  and 
under  the  guidance  ofan  established  church.  The  different  relative  pro- 
gress of  the  sciences  and  works  of  imagination  can  be  accounted  for  with- 
oui  having  recourse  to  the  theory  above  mentioned.  A  science  is  nothing 
more  than  the  combined  experiments  and  discoveries  of  men  in  all  ages, 
while  a  work  of  imagination  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  work  of  a  single 
person.  The  philosopher  can  begin  where  Bacon  and  Newton  left  off  • 
but  the  poet  must  begin  where  Homer  began. 

There  is  another  cause  for  the  prevalence  of  tliis  opinion,  m  the  erro- 
neous view  taken  of  the  works  of  an  uncultivated  people.  That  wild, 
fio-urative  language,  which  arises  from  its  barrenness,  is  often  thought  to 
be  conclusive  evidence  of  a  Uvely  imagination.  As  civilization  advances, 
that  wildness  and  extravagance  disappear;  as  language  becomes  more 
copious  and  fixed,  those  bold  figures  are  no  longer  used.  But  does  it 
follow,  that  the  imagination  is  less  hvely  ?  That  that  faculty,  on  which 
our  happiness  so  essentially  depends,  is  thus  imxpaired  by  the  very  means 
bv  which  our  good  is  promoted  ?  It  cannot  be.  The  God  of  nature,  who 
made  "wisdom's  wavs  ways  of  pleasantness."  did  never  decree  that  the 
improvement  of  the  intellectual  should  darken  that  faculty  which  is  truly 
the  mind's  eve,  and  through  which  the  past  as  well  as  the  futm-e,  and  the 
absent  as  we'll  as  the  present  can  be  scanned.  Imagination  does  not  con 
fine  itself  to  earth,  but 

"  Tired  of  It 
And  this  diurnal  scene,  she  springs  aloft 
Throueh  fields  of  air,  pursues  the  flying  storm. 
Sides  on  the  voUeved  lightning  through  the  heavens. 
Or,  yoked  -with  whirlwinds  and  the  northern  blast. 
Sweeps  the  long  track  of  day. " 

Should  we  grant  that  intellectual  improvement  was  unfavorable  to 
productions  of  the  imagination,  then  we  should  no  longer  look  for  the 
best  works  of  that  character  among  a  civilized  people,  but  should  seek 
them  among  our  native  Indians,  or  the  Tartars  of  Sibena.  We  should 
applv  the  same  rules  to  individuals  as  to  nations.  The  least  cultivated 
minds  would  be  the  most  imaginative.  We  should  look  to  them  for 
bolder  flights  than  to  IMilton,  Pope,  or  Byron  :  the  absurdity  of  which  is 
seen  by  the  mere  statement  of  it,  and  the  principle  is  unworthy  of  senous 
argument.  Historv  as  well  as  common  sense  refutes  it.  Who  of  those 
bards  whose  works"  are  as  immortal  as  the  spirits  which  produced  them 
had  not  a  cultivated  mind  1  Which  of  them  did  not  find  their  imagma- 
tive  powers  mcreased  by  intellectual  improvement^  Though  the  age 
of  Homer  was  an  age  of  comparative  darkness,  yet  the  sun  of  literature 
must  have  shone  on  Greece,  or  the  inspired  fountains  of  poetry  would 
have  been  frozen  up.  He  never  would  have  sung  of  the  heroism  of  his 
countrymen  had  not  then  feelings  responded  to  his.  He  never  would 
have  written  with  that  correct  taste  which  all  succeeding  poets  have  d*- 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMrOSITION. 


lighted  to  imitate,  had  not  reason  ah'cady  under  her  control  the  wildness 
and  extravagance  of  tht  untutored  mind. 

Our  own  age  bears  ample  testimony  that  intellectual  improvement 
does  not  destroy  genius  to  produce,  nor  diminish  desire  to  read  works  of 
imagination ;  for  there  never  was  a  time  when  so  much  fiction  is  written 
and  read  as  at  the  present.  Poetry  is  no  longer  the  language  of  history 
and  oratory,  but  it  is  what  it  ought  to  be,  the  language  of  imagination, 
clothing  in  its  various  dress  human  passions  and  affections.  In  proof  of 
this  we  need  only  refer  to  that  giant  mind  whose  powers  have  been  so 
successfully  employed  in  the  world  of  fiction,  making  an  almost  entire 
revoUition  in  that  department  of  literature.  He  has  shown  that  the  bold- 
est flights  of  the  imagination  are  not  in  the  darkness  of  night,  but  in  the 
clear  sunshine  of  day ;  that  as  civilization  advances,  and  the  human 
mind  makes  progress,  so  will  all  its  powers  be  strengthened,  and  all  its 
faculties  be  enlarged.  Science  offers  to  us  new  realms,  and  the  astrono- 
mer, as  well  as  the  poet,  may  picture  to  himself  worlds  moving  round 
m  one  harmonious  whole  far  beyond  the  reach  of  mortal  view. 

The  obscure  and  the  uncertain  may  be  necessary  for  a  fall  exercise  of 
the  imaginative  powers,  but  of  this  there  will  always  be  enough  until 
the  whole  field  of  knowledge  is  explored.  In  truth,  with  the  advance 
of  knowledge  and  science,  mystery  does  not  diminish.  New  wonders  are 
continually  unfolding  themselves,  and  as  the  field  of  vision  is  enlarged, 
other  views  are  presented ;  there  still  remains  beyond  the  visible  and  the 
certain,  the  invisible  and  mysterious. 


XCV. 

OEATION. 

An  Oration  is  a  speech  or  discourse  composed  according  to 
the  rules  of  oratory,  and  spoken  in  public ;  or,  it  may  be  de- 
fined a  popular  address  on  some  interesting  and  important 
subject.  The  term  is  now  applied  chiefly  to  speeches  or  dis- 
courses pronounced  on  special  occasions,  as  a  funeral  oration, 
an  oration  on  some  anniversary,  &c.,  and  to  academic  decla- 
mations. 

The  term  oration  is  derived  from  the  Latin  oro,  to  beg  or 
entreat,  and  properly  signifies  that  which  is  said  by  way  of 
entreaty. 

A  speech  is  in  general  that  which  is  addressed  in  a  formal 
manner  to  one  person  or  more.    A  harangue  is  a  noisy, 
tumultuous  speech,  addressed,  to  many ;  an  oration  is  a  sol- 
31 


362 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  CO^IPOSITION. 


emn  speech  for  any  purpose.  An  address  is  any  ^'ling  spoken 
or  written  from  one  person  or  party  to  another. 

A  reo-ular  oration  consists  of  six  parts,  namely : 

1  The  exordium  or  introduction,  which  is  designed  tx^  gam  the  atten 
tion  and  o-ood  will  of  the  hearers,  and  render  them  open  ,o  persnasion. 

2  The  stating  or  division  of  the  subject,  in  which  i?  expressed  what 
he  object  of  the  speaker  is,  or  what  he  designs  to  prove  or  to  refute,  what 
doctrine  he  intends  to  inculcate,  &c.  _ 

3.  The  nan-ation  or  explication  of  facts  or  opnnons  connected  witn 
the  subject. 

4.  The  reasoning  or  arguments.  ^  .        .      r  i 

5.  The  pathetic  part  in  which  an  attempt  is  made  to  mterest  the  teel- 
ings  of  the  hearers.  .  f 

6  The  conclusion,  in  which  a  general  review  may  be  made  ot  wtiat 
has  been  previously  said;  and  the  inferences  drawn  from  the  arguments 
raav  be  distinctly  stated.  „  n  v  •  i 

It  is  by  no  means  necessary  that  all  of  these  parts  should  be  included 
in  an  oration.  Much  depends  on  the  natura.of  tlie  subject,  and  what  the 
«^)eaker  has  in  view.  But  in  listening  to  a  performance  of  this  kind,  it  is 
expected  that  the  mind  will  be  infonned,  the  reasoning  powers  exercised, 
the  imao-ination  excited,  and  the  taste  improved.  Tb?,  subject  should 
be  one  which  reqmres  a  statement  and  elucidation  of  interesting  facts 
and  principles;  a  course  of  calm,  dignified,  and  persr^asive  reasoning. 
At  the  same  time,  it  should  allow  of  tine  wiiting.  There  should  be  op- 
portunity for  description  and  pathos,  for  histoncal  and  classical  allusions 
and  illustrations,  and  for  comprehensive  and  ennobhng  views.  It  should 
admit  a^o  of  unity  of  plan.  The  style  should  be  elevated  and  elegant  5 
the  form  of  expression  manly  and  dignified,  and  at  the  same  tnue  char 
acterized  by  force  and  vivacity.  The  ornament  should  be  of  a  high  kind 
-such  as  ennobles  and  exalts  the  subject.  Diflfuseness  is  hkewise 
desirable. 

Example  1st. 

OF  AN  ENGLISH  ORATION.* 
Piihlic  Station. 


One.  of  the  happiest,  as  well  as  most  useful,  improvements  which 
ll-se  social  svstera  has  received,  since  the  earliest  congregation  ot  savage 
life,  is  the  division  of  labor.  While  it  insures  to  us  the  greatest  prolit  at 
the  least  cost,  and  enables  the  labor  of  each  to  contribute  most  effectually 
to  the  advantage  of  the  whole,  it  introduces  among  men  such  a  variety 
of  classes  and  conditions  —  it  parts  out  the  business  of  life  into  so  many 
and  various  lots,  as  mav  satisfv  each  peculiar  bias,  imprinted  by  nature 
on  the  minds  of  individuals.  "The  great  world  has  many  mansions.  In 
one  there  arc  the  tools  of  industry-  and  the  bread  of  care ;  in  another, 
the  insignia  of  power  — the  diadem,^he  mitre,  and  all  the  ar-hing  luxury 


*  On  taking  the  First  Degi-ee. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


J63 


of  tln-oncs ;  in  a  third,  is  hung  up  the  unfading;  laurel  of  the  Muse,  wliidi 
as  "  it  pluclvs  all  gaze  its  way,"  lets  us  not  behold  the  cold  neglect  and 
starving  penury  Avhich  too  often  await  it ;  — one  looketh  out  upon  the 
green  fields,  with  their  blossoms,  their  full  ears,  their  bending  branches  ; 
and  another  looketh  out  u])on  the  broad  sea,  with  its  tall  ships  and  its 
cunning  merchandise  ;  —  all  these,  and  many  more,  arc  wide  open  before 
us,  and  it  requires  but  our  own  volition,  to  decide  wliere  we  will  enter  in 
and  abide. 

Among  the  manifold  professions  and  employments  of  life,  however, 
there  is  much  else,  beside  natural  bias,  to  influence  a  man's  choice.  The 
unyielding  necessity  of  gaining  a  livelihood,  binding  upon  most  of  us,  is 
ample  security  that  no  one  of  them  Avill  be  left  vacant.  Industry,  like 
wealth,  v/ill  find  its  own  level.  A  deficiency  in  any  of  its  channels  will 
create  a  demand ;  and  self-interest  will  ever  be  at  hand,  to  supply  it.  But 
this  IS  not  all.  We  are  all,  more  or  less,  the  slaves  of  passion.  The  cold 
and  calculating  dictates  of  prudence  are.  often  overruled  by  the  more 
specious  and  flattering  whispers  of  pride.  The  path  of  reason  is  too 
straight-forward  and  dull  for  our  eager  ambition.  We  cannot  bide  to 
toil  slowly  up  her  steep  and  thorny  way,  for  the  quiet  possession  of  scanty 
bread.  The  echoes  of  the  silver  trumpet  have  reached  our  ear,  and  wo 
sigh  that  it  may  sound  out  our  own  name.  The  imperial  purple  ha? 
caught  our  eye,  and  the  plain  vestments  of  an  honorable  sufficiency  seem 
too  mean  and  common  for  our  wear ! 

Perhaps  there  is  no  prospect,  which  the  imagination  can  present,  so 
alluring  to  the  mind  of  a  young  man  as  that  of  public  life.  The  mere 
fact  of  being  a  theme  of  public  interest,  and  of  being  exalted  by  the  voice 
of  popular  favor  to  a  station  above  one's  fellows, —  is  of  itself  a  boon, 
than  which,  it  would  seem,  the  most  ardent  ambition  could  desire  none 
greater.  But  this  is  but  the  beginning  of  good  things,  --  but  the  portal 
to  the  high  places  of  fame.  It  is  in  the  exercise  of  this  trust,  that  the 
full  harvest  of  glory  is  to  be  reaped.  Our  mind  is  to  counsel,  —  our  voice 
to  direct,— oisr  arm  to  govern  all ;— the  sceptre  of  power  is  to  be  handled, 
—  her  royal  robes  put  on  —  and  we  are  to  be  the  gaze  of  every  eye. 
These  are  the  rich  privileges  which  our  eager  fancy  holds  out  to  us  as  the 
rcAvards  of  office ;  and  it  is  not  to  be  Avondered  at,  that  the  coldest  ambi 
tion  should  kindle  at  the  vicAV.  It  is  no  longer  a  strange  thing,  that  pop 
ular  favor  should  be  courted  and  public  station  sought  diligently  after. 
It  is  man's  nature  to  look  upAvard  — aquila,  ccelum  versus,"  —  hov/ 
then  can  he  but  long  for  this  highest  heaven  of  human  glory  1 

But  let  us  strip  off  the  gilded  veil  of  fancj^  and  loolfin  upon  the  con- 
dition of  office  Avhen  the  pomp  and  parade  are  over,  and  the  robes  are 
thrown  aside.  And  hero,  it  Avere  a  superfluous  task  to  inquire  into  the 
comparative  happiness  and  ease  of  public  station.  It  needs  not  the  elo- 
quent philosophy  of  the  Avrongcd  Duke,  to  tell  us,  that  a  life  of  even  un-. 
deserved  exile  is  SAvecter  far  than  that  of  painted  pomp,  —  "  the  inhospi- 
table woods  more  free  from  peril  than  the  envious  court,"  "  the  icy 

fang  and  churlish  chiding  of  the  Avinter's  Avind,"  more  trusty  counsellors 
than  the  fawning  flattery  of  court-sycophants.  Nor  need  wc  the  touching 
examples  of  Wolsey,  of  Buckingham,  of  Mary,  and  all  that  host  of  splen- 
did misery  Avhich  history  supplies,  to  Avarn  us  hoAv  sore  and  galling  a 
burden  is  "too  much  honor."  We  haA-e  heard  Avith  our  ears  — our°fa- 
thers  have  told  us  —  many  of  us  are  in  the  immediate,  sad  experience, 
that  place  and  greatness,  though  fair  Avithout,  and  full  of  temptation,  — ' 


364 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOX. 


are.  like  the  apples  of  Asphaltum,  but  ashes  to  the  taste :  and  when  -with' 
di-awn  from  the  excitements  of  busy  life,  and  left  alone  to  reflection,  we 
are  all  ready  enough  to  exclaim  with  the  poet :  — 

"  'T  is  bettei-  to  be  lowly  bom, 
And  range  with  liunjble  livers  in  content, 
Than  to  be  perked  up  in  a  glistering  grief, 
Or  wear  a  golden  sorrow." 

But  this  is  one  of  those  fireside  reflections  which  are  apt  to  escape  us, 
in  the  bustle  of  out-of-door  life.  Vain  hope  with  all  its  specious  and 
most  plausible  cheats,  bids  us  not  take  upon  trust  so  sad  a  truth.  Am- 
bition, which  we  strive  in  vain  to  "  fling  away,"  whispers  us,^  that  it  is 
nobler  to  bide  the  worst,  so  honor  be  the  stake.  To  serve  one's  country, 
is  at  least  a  glorious  martpdom,  and  we  are  proud  to  suff'er  it.  Were 
such  the  motive  of  those  who  enter  the  lists  of  public  life,  Avere  honor 
conferred  in  exact  proportion  to  merit,  and  trust  squared  mth  integrity, 
this  were  a  sentiment  worthy  the  extremest  limit  of  indulgence.  A 
nobler  vocation  no  one  can  have,  —  a  more  glorious  sacrifice  was  never 
made,  —  than  to  toil  and  suffer  for  the  public  good.  Our  countiy's  call, 
as  it  were  the  voice  of  Fate  crying  out  to  us,  should  make  "  each  petty 
artery  in  this  body,  as  hardy  as  the  Nemean  lion's  nerve ! "  But  is  it 
from"^pure  and  disinterested  patriotism,  that  so  many  are  daily  clothed 
in  the  white  robe  of  candidacy  1  Can  we  pretend,  even  in  this  land  of 
Dromise,  that  pubUc  honors  are  never  capriciously,  nay,  are  never  unjust- 
ly, bestowed  1  We  have  not,  indeed,  here,  that  long  line  of  titled  aris- 
tocracy, "  state-statues  only,"  whose  rank,  dating  from  the  cradle,  can  be 
founded,  at  most,  only  on  a  predestinarian  estimate  of  future  worth  ! 
We  acknowledge  neither  "  Divine  right,"  nor  "  original  compact,"  as  a 
claim  to  supremacy.  Much  less  need' we  fear  that  the  wise,  the  virtu- 
ous, and  the  learned  should  be  banished  from  our  land,  as  from  Sparta 
of  old,  in  very  fear  lest,  by  the  unrestrained  exertion  of  their  pernicious 
weapons,  thev  should  work  out  for  themselves  an  extravagant  and  dan- 
gerous influence.  The  wise,  the  learned,  the  good,  stand  here  indeed 
their  chance  with  the  rest;  and  it  is  a  triumph  worthy  all  rejoicmgs 
when  they  struggle  into  power.  But  how  often  do  we  see  those  noble 
natures,  —  who,  seeking  merit  rather  than  fame,  would  scorn  to  "flatter 
Neptune  for  his  trident,  or  Jove  for  his  power  to  thunder,"  —  cheated  pf 
their  rightful  inheritance  of  glory !  It  cannot  be  denied,  though  with 
shame  we  confess  it,  that  learning,"  genius,  and  virtue,  will  strive  for  pop- 
ular favor,  but  at  fearful  and  perilous  odds,  against  the  supple  knee,  the 
flattering  tongue,  the  cringing  soul. 

What,  then,  is  there  in  office  for  which  men  are  thus  eagerly  stri%ing_? 
What  is  this  highest  prize  of  contention,  in  pursuit  of  which,  happiness  is 
counted  as  nothing,  and  merit  is  content  to  be  pitted  against  hypocrisy 
and  intrigue  ?  It  is  called  Power.  There  are  few  more  ludicrous 
mistakes,°which  this  erring  worid  exhibits,  than  those  of  a  false  and 
o'erleaping  ambition.  The  redoubted  Knight  of  la  Mancha,  thougli  un- 
equalled in  story,  is  not  alone  in  real  life.  We  may,  almost  daily,  be- 
hold the  brazen'basin  of  the  barber,  borae  proudly  along,  in  all  its  soapy 
mstre,  as  if 't  were  really  the  golden  helmet  of  Mambrino !  In  most 
countries,  we  may  see  crowds,  and  even  in  our  own  practical  land  not  a 
few  of  those  dabblers  in  the  pettiness  of  fame,  whose  official  importance 
would  serve  only  to  remind  us  of  that  pretty  device  of  ^sop,  —  a  fly  on 
the  axle  of  a  chariot,  sti'iAdng  to  exclaim  "  what  a  dust  do  1  raise  ! "  The 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


365 


h-uth  is,  that  in  these  times,  and  especially  in  our  o^vn  land,  the  power, 
which  office  of  itself  confers,  is  most  specious  and  shadowy.  Even  in  tho 
Old  World,  little  else  is  retauied,  save  the  name,  the  show,  the  ceremony 
of  power.  In  the  most  arbitrary  governments  of  modern  times,  the  pop 
ular  feeling  is  respected  and  obeyed,  though  it  be  not  directly,  and  in 
terms  appealed  to.  But  with  us,  the  very  boast  of  our  liberty  is,  that  the 
people  are  supreme.  They  indeed  do  delegate  certain  of  their  number, 
to  manage  for  them  their  great  estate  of  sovereignty :  —  but  this  delegated 
authority  is  divided  off  into  so  many  branches,  and  so  entirely  checked 
by  the  mutual  action  of  these  branches  upon  each  other,  that  the  power 
of  individual  office  is  a  mere  name  and  a  shade.  Our  governors  are  in 
fact  but  public  servants  — a  most  honorable,  indeed,  and  praiseworthy 
service,  but  containing  so  much  more  of  burden  and  care,  than  of  power, 
that  we  might  almost  apply  to  them  the  old  Greek  proverb,  —  '•  none  in 
the  land  are  so  much  shoes,  as  its  masters.''^ 

But  if  public  station  do  not  actually  co«/cr  poAver  upon  its  possessor, 
it  at  least,  aftbrds  him  the  most  favorable  opportunity  for  gaining  it.  If 
office  be  not  greatness,  it  surely  must  be  the  highest  vantage-ground 
for  achieving  greatness.  It  Avas  the  answer  of  the  Delphic  oracle  to 
Cicero,  says  Plutarch,  when  he  inquired  how  he  should  attain  to  the 
hi"-hest  earthly  glory,  —  "  by  making  his  own  genius,  and  not  the  will  of 
the  people,  the  guide  of  his  life."  To  enter  into  an  elaborate  discussion 
of  this  great  question,  would  far  exceed  our  spare  and  strict  allowance 
of  time ;  but  it  may  well  be  doubted,  whether  that  close  subjection  to 
popular  will,  that  contracted  servitude  to  party,  that  unyielding  bondage 
to  public  opinion,  which  public  officers  must  necessarily  undergo,  be  not 
far,  very  far,  from  the  pure  and  perfect  air  of  liberty,  in  which  genius 
exults  and  thrives.  It  seems,  too,  a  nobler,  as  well  as  freer,  task  to  pro- 
mote the  mental  improvement,  than  the  physical  welfare,  of  om  race,  — 
to  govern  minds,  than  to  govern  men. 

I  know  that  history,  an  honorable  mention  in  whose  pages  is,  perhaps, 
the  proudest  reward  which  mortal  merit  can  aspire  to,  has  hitherto  de- 
voted her  exclusive  praise  to  those  who  have  led  the  armies  or  guided  the 
councils  of  their  nations.  It  hath  now  been  the  diary  of  princes,  and  now 
the  "  field-book  of  conquerors,"  and  full  rarely  hath  even  the  name  of  a 
private  man,  however  splendid  his  talents  or  exalted  his  virtues,  been 
deemed  worthy  of  its  notice.  But  the  liberty,  which  has  been  here 
worked  out,  is  not  confined  to  the  mere  form  and  ceremony  of  govern- 
ment, —  it  not  only  pervades  the  whole  atmosphere,  but  penetrates  the 
very  life-breath,  and  purifies  the  very  heart's  core  of  society,  —  and  \ve 
may  confidently  hope,  that  the  Free  Historian  of  Free  America,  pampered 
in  no  court,  pensioned  by  no  crown,  will  pen  with  the  golden  pen  of 
Truth,  —  that  her  history  may  be,  as  all  history  ought  to  be,  —  philosophy, 
pure,  uncompromising  philosophy,  "  teaching  by  examples,"  —  a  history, 
where  crimes  may  be  mentioned  only  to  be  condemned,  —  where  virtue, 
genius,  merit,  may  stand  out  in  their  own  unfading  beauty,  the  admiration 
and  the  model  of  the  world !  We  would  not,  indeed,  withhold  their 
merited  tribute  of  praise,  their  proud  recompense  of  glory,  from  the 
"  patriots  who  have  toiled  and  in  their  country's  cause  bled  nobly."  The 
sweet  lyre,  the  sculptured  marble,  shall  have  their  names  in  holy  keep- 
ing !  But  they  are  not  alone  patriots.  This  proud  title  of  patriotism  is  no 
narrow  distinction  of  birth  or  of  fortune.  Whoever  promotes,  or  labors 
to  promote,  the  interest  and  welfare  of  his  country,  be  his  means  never  so 

31* 


366 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


small,  his  vocation  never  so  humble,  is  a  patriot.  They  are  patriots  who 
obey  and  defend,  as  well  as  they  who  make  the  laAvs.  They  are  patriots 
who  strive,  as  they  are  able,  to  advance  in  the  land  the  great  cause  of  re- 
ligion, of  justice,  of  public  improvement.  Every  good  man  is  a  patriot! 
They  were  patriots,  whose  names  shall  hereafter  be  mentioned  as  the 
founders  and  benefactors  of  this  venerable  institution.  ZTe  ^  is  a  patriot, 
and  worthy  a  patriot's  praise,  whose  wonted  presence  at  the  head  of  our 
University,  on  this  high  festival  of  letters,  we  may  no  longer  look  for.  If 
the  youth  of  our  land  be  its  hope  and  its  promise,  as  their  fathers  are  its 
strength  and  its  support,  —  surely  he  shall  have  rendered  a  goodly  and 
an  acceptable  service  to  his  country,  who  by  his  diligence,  his  instructions, 
his  example,  has  trained  up  so  many  to  her  duties  and  her  honor.  We 
would  yield  him,  then,  the  glory  of  a  patriot^  as  well  as  the  affectionate 
thanks  of  grateful  hearts,  for  all  that  he  has  done  and  suffered  in  the 
cause  of  education.  His  is  a  glory,  "  cui  neque  profait  quisquam  laiidando, 
neqiie  vituperando  quisquam  nocuit"  May  he  live  long,  to  sec  this  ancient 
abode  of  science,  —  the  fond  object  of  his  care  and  love,  —  increased  in 
usefulness  and  power;  standing  in  all  the  strength  of  sound  wisdom,  in 
all  the  majesty  of  virtue,  in  all  the  beauty  of  holiness,  a  blessing  to  the 
children,  and  an  honor  to  the  fathers  of  our  land ;  and  on  its  brightest 
tablet  of  record,  among  its  best  defenders,  shall  his  name  and  his  praise 
be  ever  inscribed.  May  his  years  to  come  be  full  of  comfort,  and  his 
jnd  —  peace ! 

It  is  one  of  the  peculiar  features  of  our  republican  government,  that  the 
ioors  of  office,  —  Avhich  have  hitherto  been  rarely  entered,  but  by  those 
who  could  produce  the  passports  of  high  bii^th  or  princely  patronage,  — 
are  here  thrown  open  to  all.  The  natural  consequence  is,  that  all  are 
eager  to  rush  in.  Imagination  has  pictured  to  us  this  exclusive  abode, 
abundant  in  all  the  luxury  and  splendor  of  Oriental  magnificence ;  and. 
the  prince  of  Abyssinia  felt  not  more  longings,  —  and,  I  venture  to  say, 
tried  not  more  expedients,  to  gain  a  knowledge  and  a  view  of  the  outer 
world  of  man,  than  we  to  gain  admittance  into  this  favored  palace  of  the 
Ble*t.  We  do  not  fear,  with  the  enemies  of  liberty,  that  this  "  political 
ambition  "  will  always  prove  a  canker  in  the  hearts,  or  engender  corrup- 
tion in  the  minds  of  our  people,  —  warring  against  the  interests  of  litera- 
ture, and  bringing  down  upon  us  either  the  darkness  of  anarchy  or  the 
more  gloomy  light  of  despotism.  We  neither  feel,  nor  feign,  any  such 
idle  apprehensions.  We  have  seen  the  flood-gates  of  ocean  suddenly  un- 
barred, and  though  the  dashing  waves  leaped  never  so  violently  in  devouring 
all  they  met,  —  it  was  but  for  a  moment ;  the  waters  flowed  again  into  their 
channel,  and  the  sea  was  still.  But  though  this  temporary  evil  will  ulti- 
mately be  its  own  cure,  it  is  well  that  all  means  should  be  employed  to 
diminish  its  immediate  \dolence.  The  storm  has  not  yet  ceased  —  Ave  may, 
even  iwiy,  see  it,  in  all  the  strength  of  its  rage,  fearfully  agitating  our  land. 
The  holy  ark  of  our  liberties  is,  even  now,  tossed  on  its  angry  bosom  !  It  is 
time  that  men's  eyes  were  opened  to  reason.  It  is  time  that  they  looked 
upon  office  as  it  really  is ;  like  the  other  professions  of  life,  a  place  of  hon- 
orable labor,  conferring  on  its  possessor  no  absolute  superiority,  —  no  ex- 
elusive  privilege,  —  no  peculiar  blessedness ;  —  an  elevation  where  one's 
fellings,  as  well  as  excellences,  are  displayed  to  a  dangerous  advantage. 
We  would  render  to  the  rulers  and  counsellors  of  our  land  all  the  respect 


*  Dr.  Kirkland,  who  had  recently  retired  from  the  University. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMrOSITION. 


36/ 


nnd  homage  tliat  are  their  due ;  but  we  will  not  yield  up  to  them  the  solo 
possession  of  that  power  —  the  only  poAvcr  worth  haAdng  —  the'highes 
power  of  man  —  a  power  Avhich  angels  from  all  their  glory  might  stoop  to 
enjoy—-  the  power  of  doing  good  to  mankind  —  of  serving  one's  country  — 
of  improving  our  race  —  of  ennobling  our  age !  This  is  the  power  which 
all  may  possess  —  which  requires  no  passport  but  of  Heaven.  This  is 
the  promotion  which  "  cometh  neither  from  the  East,  from  the  West,  nor 
yet  from  the  South."  Mind  asks  not  the  seal  of  office  for  a  sanction  of 
its  dictates,  "wee  suviit  aut  ponit  secm^es  arbitrio  papillaris  aurcz.'"  Its  course 
will  on,  the  way  it  takes,  "  cracking  ten  thousand  curbs  of  more  strong 
link  asunder,"  than  the  slender  impediments  of  artificial  society.  It  will 
speak  out,  wherever  it  exists,  in  tones  than  which  God's  thunder  is  not 
■more  audible ! 

To  this  power  and  this  greatness  let  us  aspire.  Let  the  education  and 
improvement  of  mind  be  the  first  object  of  our  ambition.  Let  not  the 
great  harvest  of  our  literature  he  longer  unreaped.  Our  dizzy  mountain- 
peaks  —  our  green  hills  —  our  fertile  vales  —  our  thundering  cataracts  — 
our  pleasant  streams,  were  never  made  for  sealed  lips.  Our  fii-m  hands, 
our  brave  hearts,  our  bright  eyes,  though  eloquent  in  silence,  deserve  not 
a  mute  lyre.  The  fair  brow  of  Liberty  looks  bald  and  naked  without  the 
laurel  of  the  Muse  ! 

Example  2. 

THE  UTILITARIAN  SYSTEM.  * 
"  Cui  Bono." 

The  spirit  of  the  present  strongly  demands  the  nsefid  in  all  its  objects  ot 
pursuit ;  there  is  little  reason  to  fear  that  men  will  neglect  their  interests 
so  far  as  their  judgment  enables  them  to  perceive  them ;  for  Httle  occupies 
general  attention  that  does  not  return  some  plausible  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion, "  Of  what  use  is  it?  what  advantage  arises  from  it?  "  The  wild 
visions  conjured  up  by  the  heated  imaginations  of  other  times,  are  all 
viewed  through  this  correcting  medium,  and  stripped  of  all  their  bright  and 
deceptive  colors,  are  stamped  with  that  value  only  to  which  . their  ntility 
entitles  them.  The  lance  of  chivalry  rusts  in  obscurity  and  neglect,  while 
the  ploughshare  is  bright  with  honoral^Ie  u^e  ;  the  venerable  castle,  moss- 
covered  and  shattered  by  the  storms  of  a  thousand  years,  is  of  small  conse- 
quence, as  It  stands  beside  the  smart,  new-built  manufactory,  its  neighbor, 
whence  some  of  the  conveniences  and  comforts  of  fife  are  constantly  flow- 
ing ;  the  mountain,  though  it  be  the  highest  peak  of  the  Alps,  or  Andes, 
cloud-capt,  and  snow-crowned,  towering  sublime  over  the  domains  be- 
neath the  theme  of  poets,  and  the  resting-place  of  the  imagination,  is 
thought  httle  of  m  comparison  with  the  dark  and  gloomy  mine  at  its  base, 
whence  are  drawn  the  ore  for  manufacture,  or  the  coal  with  which  it  i^s 
prepared. 

AH  things  are  estimated,  not  at  the  price  set  upon  them  by  the  children 
of  poetry  and  romance,  but  according  to  their  immediate  subserviency  in 
rendering  comfortable  the  condition  of  the  great  majority  of  mankind. 
And  shall  any  one  say  that  there  is  not  much  true  philosophy  in  this  valu 
ation  ^  ^  Shall  any  one  sigh  over  the  tendency  of  the  age  to  look  with  a 
di^'iassionate  eye  on  those  wild  schemes,  and  false  ideas  of  honor  an<* 


*  On  taking  the  First  Degree. 


868 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


greatness,  which  in  tormer  times  caused  such  a  waste  of  human  life  and 
means  ?  Shall  any  one  for  this  denounce  the  times  as  forgetful  of  all  that 
constitutes  excellence  or  happiness  ?  Shall  it  be  said  that  this  spirit  ncces 
sarily  smothers  aU  the  nobler  parts  of  man's  nature,  and  reduces  him  to  a 
mere  pains-taking,  money-getting  animal  ?  That  it  is  incapable  of  being 
turned  and  guided  into  any  good^course,  and  of  forming  the  groundwork  or 
a  better  state  of  things  than  the  world  has  ever  yet  seen  ?  Such  desponding 
minds,  —  such  prophets  of  evil,  must  have  got  their  ideas  of  the  sumtiium 
bonum  from  tales  of  chivalry  and  romance,  from  the  dreams  and  longings 
of  a  heated  imagination,  from  any  thing,  in  fact,  rather  than  a  comparison 
of  the  sources  of  happiness  in  the  present  and  any  former  time.  Should 
such  an  examination  be  made,  that  which  appears  so  bright  and  enchant- 
ing when  viewed  from  a  distance,  will  hardly  bear  a  close  inspection. 
Strip  these  bright  visions  of  all  the  radiance  thrown  around  them  by  the 
charms  of  an  elegant  literature,  and  how  meagre  do  they  stand  before  us, 
in  all  the  harsh  outline  of  a  rude  and  unpohshed  nature  ;  the  violent  pas- 
sions and  harsh  impulses  of  men  stand  forth,  divested  of  that  softening  in- 
fluence thrown  upon  them  by  a  refined  civilization.  The  courage  of  the 
warrior  will  shrink  to  the  level  of  mere  animal  violence  ;  the  beauty  of  the 
hidies  will  pall  upon  the  imagination,  when  it  is  considered  how  uninterest- 
ing must  have  been  their  minds  from  the  want  of  all  those  graces  and  re- 
finements which  a  more  enlightened  age  only  can  impart ;  while  througja- 
out  all  classes  the  powers  of  the  intellect  were  but  imperfectly  developed, 
and  give  us  no  very  exalted  idea  of  man  and  his  powers.  Let  these  things 
be  but  once  thought  of  in  such  an  abstract  way,  separated  from  all  the 
bright  associations  that  are  usually  wound  about  them,  and  the  most  en 
thusiastic  admirer  of  antiquity  will  hardly  v/ish  that  his  lot  had  been  cast 
in  any  of  those  periods  that  once  seemed  so  delightful. 

But  though  the  present  estimate  of  utility  be  on  the  whole  so  correct,  is 
there  nothing  in  it  that  maybe  cause  of  disgust  to  those  of  delicate  feelings, 
and  at  the  same  time  injurious  to  our  truest,  best-defined  interests  ?  None 
but  the  most  unhesitating,  undiscriminating  panegyrist  would  attempt  to 
deny  it.  In  their  endeavors  to  reduce  eveiy  thing  to  the  standard  of  the 
useful,  many  have  overstepped  the  limit.  In  their  zeal  to  do  away  with 
all  old  follies,  they  cast  off  with  them  some  of  those  virtues  which  are  pe 
culiar  to  no  age  or  state  of  society,  but  whose  seat  is  deep  in  the  human 
heart,  and  whose  free  exercise  is  indispensable  to  the  prosperous  continu 
ance  of  any  state  or  order  of  things ;  connecting  these  with  the  really 
worthless  objects,  with  which  they  are  so  often  associated,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  eradicating  all  the  useless  weeds  from  the  soil  of  humanity,  they 
ruthlessly  tear  up  some  of  the  most  beautiful  flowers  in  the  gardens  of  the 
heart ;  they  crush  those  buds  that  would  expand,  and  blossom,  and  bear 
good  fruit ;  that  woixld  exalt  and  purify,  and  refine  life,  and  go  far  to  rea 
lize  man's  imagined  perfections. 

We  may  see  some  signs  of  such  a  spirit,  in  that  tone  of  superior  wisdom 
that  would  repress  all  the  outbreakings  of  enthusiasm,  and  damp  the  ardor 
of  the  grateful  heart  in  its  admiration  of  the  beautiful  and  noble,  with  a  sar- 
castic and  self-conceited  manner  of  asking  the  question,  What  use  ?  And 
if  the  object  of  this  harsh  ridicule  cannot  show  some  direct  and  visible  ope- 
ration of  the  ideas  and  sentiments  he  admires,  it  warns  him  to  be  advised 
by  experience,  and  to  have  done  with  all  such  foolish  and  romantic  notions, 
which  will  only  impede  his  successful  progress  in  the  world  ;  that  is,  drop 
all  that  characterizes  the  man  of  feeling  and  sentiment,  and  retain  nothing 
but  the  most  esteemed  maxims  of  a  self-wise  and  selfish  experience.  Such 
a  spirit  would  look  upon  this  fair  earth  merely  as  one  great  farm,  intended 
only  to  maintain  its  numberless  denizens  by  its  productive  powers  ;  it 
v/ould  gi-udge  every  acre  not  devoted  to  this  purpose ;  it  would  look  with 
an  invidious  eye  upon  lakes  and  mountains  as  useless  incumbrances ;  in 
the  pleasant  light  of  heaven,  and  the  blowing  of  its  breezes,  it  would  reoog 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


369 


'^ize  only  the  means  to  promote  vegetation,  and  bring  the  harvest  to  ma 
'parity;  men  it  would  regard  as  mere  instruments  in  these  great  operations 
lis  bound  to  their  country,  and  to  each  other,  by  no  stronger  ties,  no  better 
feeUngs  than  a  low  and  selfish  interest ;  to  it  all  else  seems  superfluous  :  all 
the  glorious  and  beautiful,  and  all  the  touching  and  delicate,  of  the  natural 
and  moral  world,  are  unvalued  and  uncared  for.  Though  this  false  estimate 
be  but  too  common,  the  mind  that  has  not  been  subjected  to  it  must  revolt 
at  its  dictates.  What !  must  all  the  refreshing  gardens  and  pleasant  walks 
of  life  be  shut,  all  its  delightful  prospects  obstructed,  and  all  the  gushiTig 
streams  of  the  heart  be  sealed  up  !  Could  any  one  urge  this  in  serious  ar- 
gument, no  more  concise  and  appropriate  answer  could  be  given  him,  than 
the  decision  of  the  Creator  himself  upon  the  works  of  his  hand, —  that  they 
are  good,  all  good.  , 

But,  to  sucla  contemners  of  all  that  soars  above  their  own  limited  vision, 
the  use  of  argument  seems  altogether  superfluous  ;  there  are  certain  epithets 
to  which  no  definite  meaning  is  attached,  but  which,  when  applied  with  a 
certain  manner  of  sai'casm  or  ridicule,  do  more  to  injure  their  object,  than 
the  most  direct  and  severe  crimination :  there  is  a  vagueness  about  them 
that  gives  the  imagination  room  to  conjure  up  a  thousand  bad  qualities,  and 
apply  them  to  Avhatever  is  the  subject  of  obloquy.  Of  this  nature  is  the 
epithet  romantic^  so  frequently  and  indiscriminately  applied  to  all  the  im 
pulses  which  fill  the  breasts  of  those  who  have  not  lost  all  the  warmth  and 
generosity  given  them  by  nature ;  who  are  excited  with  a  noble  ardor  at 
the  mention  of  great  examples  of  virtu  )  or  heroism  ;  who  can  see  and  feel 
the  sublime  and  beautiful  in  nature  and  in  character;  who  can  kindle  with 
love,  swell  Avith  pity,  or  weep  in  sympathy  with  another's  woes  ;  they  are 
told  that  all  these  things  will  not  do  in  the  world;  that  they  are  only  found  iii 
silly  novels  ;  in  fact,  that  they  are  all  together  too  romantic.  The  tendency 
of  this  spirit  is  to  make  the  young  distrust  their  own  feelings,  and  anxious 
to  suppress  every  word  and  action  that  might  come  within  the  reach  of 
this  far-sweeping  i-omantic  ;  restraint  and  affected  indifference  become  but 
too  fashionable,  even  among  those  who  are  formed  for  better  things ;  their 
fetters,  early  and  long-worn,  at  length  cease  to  gall,  and  the  man  of  a  once 
warm  heapt  and  strong  affections,  becomes  a  frigid  and  unimpassioned 
thing,  whose  impulses  are  all  of  the  lowest,  commonest  description.  But 
is  it  really  so  ?  Is  there  any  danger  in  giving  way  to  any  of  those  emotions 
which  are  so  enchanting  m  the  page  of  poetry  or  romance  ?  Are  they 
really  incompatible  with  those  necessary  duties  which  are  allotted  to  most 
men  in  the  common  routine  of  life  and  occupation  ?  Must  we  risk  all  those 
bright  visions  of  life,  enlivened  and  ennobled  by  the  exei'cise  of  those  finer 
feelings  we  love  so  to  dwell  upon  ?  In  fine,  are  they  all  of  no  use  ?  Let 
the  anxious  inquirer  look  around,  and  mark  the  operation  of  some  of  those 
sentiments  so  harshly  condemned  as  romantic  and  useless. 

Is  that  feeling  useless  which  entwines  a  love  of  his  native  land  with  every 
Jlbre  of  a  man's  heart  ?  Which  m'akes  him  look  upon  her  mountains  and 
J  lains,  her  rivers  and  lakes,  or  her  rock-bound,  sea-washed  coast,  with  an 
indescribable,  and  almost  superstitious  veneration  ?  Shall  all  those  associ- 
ations which  make  a  man  look  upon  his  country  as  something  more  than 
so  much  land  inhabited  by  so  many  proprietors,  whom  convenience  has  led 
to  form  themselves  into  an  organized,  political  body,  be  lauglied  at,  as  the 
relic  of  a  bygone,  barbarous  age ;  as  too  romantic  to  be  indulged  even  for  a 
moment  ?  Shall  that  enthusiasm  which  leads  the  traveller,  weary  of  wan- 
dering, and  longing  for  home,  on  beholding  the  rocks  and  cliffs  of  his  native 
shore,  to  exclaim  with  rapturous  joy, —  "  This  is  my  own,  my  native  land," 
—  be  ridiculed  as  the  expression  of  nothing  but  a  mawkish,  and  false  sen- 
sibility ?  On  the  contrary,  is  not  such  a  feeling  the  foundation  of  that  true 
and  real  2)atriot{sm,  which  makes  a  man  lay  down  wealth  and  comfort,  and 
pour  forth  blood  like  water  for  his  country's  good  ?  Has  it  not  been  tha 
\  '1-pervading  sentiment  in  those  martyx-s'  and  patriots  whom  history  and 


370  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


fiction  equally;  delight  in  honoring?  Should  we  make  Thennopylaj  and 
Marathon  familiar  as  household  words,  had  there  not  been'  some  stronger 
impulse  in  the  breasts  of  the  heroes  who  fought  there  than  the  mere  desire 
to  save  their  lands  and  property  from  unjust  spoliation  ?  Interest,  or  fic- 
tion, may,  for  a  time,  excite  men  to  action  in  behalf  of  their  country;  but, 
to  arouse  the  undying  flame  of  patriotism,  to  make  such  lovers  of  their 
country  as  time  has  shown,  the  "  caritas  ipsius  soli,"  the  clinging  to  all  the 
marks  written  in  memory  by  affection,  the  scenes  of  our  youth,  the  monu 
ments  and  undying  history  of  our  ancestors,  our  heartiistones,  and  objects 
of  domestic  affection,  must  all  work  together  in  a  manner  none  the  less  ef 
fective,  because  it  cannot  be  reduced  to  the  cold  and  exact  rules  of  states- 
men or  philosophers. 

Is  that  love  useless  which  exalts  so  high  in  man's  judgment  the  worth  of 
the  fairer,  softer  portion  of  his  race  ;  that  takes  aAvay  so  much  of  the  harsh 
and  loAV  from  his  character,  and  m.akes  him  see  every  thing  in  a  warmer 
purer  light.  Or  are  any  of  those  other  tender  feelings,  which  purify  liis 
character,  and  m.ake  him  somewhat  like  the  divine  original  ?  Equally  harsh 
and  false  is  that  estimate  that  would  say  so ;  which  would  divest  life  of  so 
much  that  softens  its  hard  and  rugged  track ;  which  would  stop  all  those 
fountains  gushing  fresh  from  the  heart,  which  sweeten  and  quicken  the 
otherwise  insipid  and  slug-gish  course  of  duties  and  labors.  And  yet  such 
a  disposition  is  but  too  common;  it  hears  with  incredulity  of  the  existence 
of  virtuous  enthusiasm,  or  ardent  love ;  or,  if  it  cannot  doubt  their  exist- 
ence, it  shows  its  contempt  for  them  by  a  freezing  interrogatory  as  to  their 
advantage  ;  it  would  confine  all  such  romantic  feelings  to  the  pages  of  the 
poet  or  novelist,  who,  it  thinks,  first  gave  them  birth,  and  insists,  that  liow- 
ever  Avell  they  may  do  to  "  point  a  moral,  or  adorn  a  tale,"  they  will  never 
do  in  real  life. 

If  such  Avere  real  life,  if  none  of  the  holiest  and  best  affections  could  be 
indulged  with  safety,  well  might  the  gloomy  views  of  those  be  entertained, 
who  look  upon  the  pleasant  v^^orld  as  a  succession  of  empty  nothings,  and 
all  our  boasted  improvements  and  advancements  as  only  tending  to  render 
them  lighter  and  more  empty,  and  to  remove  us  farther  from  all  that  makes 
life  worth  the  having. 

Such  a  feeling  of  discontent,  as  it  is  particularly  apt  to  seize  upon  minds 
most  delicately  tuned  by  nature,  must  have  an  injurious  effect  upon  the 
age,  which  has  been  represented  as,  on  the  whole",  so  discriminating  as  to 
what  is  truly  good  and  useful ;  since  it  withdraws  from  exerting  a  health 
ful  influence  those  whose  natural  impulses  would  cause  them  to  promote 
its  best  interests  ;  but,  disgusted  by  the  false,  utilitarian  spirit  just  dwelt 
upon,  their  minds  sink  into  a  morbid  and  repining  state,  Avhich  questions 
if  there  be  any  thing  pleasant,  or  excellent,  contents  itself  with  railing  at 
all  around,  and  nursing  its  own  misanthropic  feelings. 

How,  then,  shall  Ave  ansAver  that  cold  and  sareastic  temper,  Avhich,  in  all 
the  confidence  of  superior  Avisdom,  thinks  to  crush  all  the  generous  impul 
ses  of  an  ardent  nature,  the  aspiratioais  of  genius,  or  the  buddings  of  an 
unfeigned  love,  or  strong  attachment,  by  a  AA'ithering  manner  of  asking  the 
question.  Of  witat  use  are  all  these'!  We  might  ansAver  Avith  another  ques 
tion ;,  Of  AA^hat  use  is  the  pleasant  light  of  the  sun  ?  For,  not  more  groping, 
cold,  and  melancholy,  Avould  be  an  eternal,  sunless  night,  than  life  Avithout 
one  ray  of  those  Avarmer  feelings  to  illumine  its  dark  and  tortuous  paths, 
to  gild  the  points  of  all  the  sterner,  harsher  duties,  and  cast  a  Avarm  flush 
of  happiness  over  all  its  varying  scenes.  We  might  tell  them,  that,  banish 
these,  and  the  AA^orld  Avould  be  a  desert  of  so  harsh  and  uninteresting  an  as- 
pect, that  the  most  stoical  patience  could  rot  endin-e  it  long  ;  and,  if  their 
tmsympathizing  minds  could  not  comprehend  hoAV  this  might  be,  Ave  might 
tell  them  that  to  the  feelings  they  so  miuch  despise  they  are  indebted  for 
the  continuance  of  that  state  of  things  Avhich  appears  to  them  so  profita- 
ble and  excellent.    That  they  are  the  great  corner-stones  on  Avhich  society 


\ 

\ 

'v 

\ 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


371 


IS  founded,  the  bonds  that  maintain  its  nnion ;  that,  hut  for  some  of  tha 
enthusiasm  they  so  much  condeum,  civihzation  would  long  since  have  stop- 
ped in  its  progress,  the  arts  and  knowledge  would  have  remained  undevel- 
oped, and  all  that  tends  to  exalt  and  refine  man's  condition  would  still  have 
slumbered.  If  they  cannot  be  induced  by  this  to  acknowledge  that  there 
are  any  others  but  their  own  beaten  highways  of  life,  they  must  remain  in 
ignorance  of  all  its  better  part,  forfeit  all  the  enjoyments  which  accrue  to 
those  who  can  rightly  estimate  its  blessings,  and  plod  on  in  the  way  the^ 
have  chosen  for  themselves ;  — while,  to  those  who  have  an  undimmed  per- 
ception of  the  good  and  lovely,  life  spreads  itself  out  like  a  verdant  flowery 
field,  its  paths  enlivened  by  the  bordering  green,  the  gemming  dewdrops 
not  yet  dashed  from  its  flowerets,  and  all  beyond  a  vista  of  gladness  and. 
beauty.  Happy  those  who  choose  this  better  portion,  and  enjoy  that  real 
life  v/hich  those  only  can  have,  who,  in  all  their  estimates  of  use,  are  guided 
by  that  true  philosophy,  which,  while  it  hastens  the  step  of  improvement, 
does  not  prevent  the  coiiperation  of  our  best  nature  ! 

Example  3. 
Public  Opinion.^ 

On  the  return  of  this  ancient  anniversary,  on  this  academical  jubikfe, 
which  borrows  all  its  lustre  from  the  countenance  of  a  great  community,  I 
ttm  naturally  led  to  the  contemplation  of  the  powder  of  a  community.  It  is 
public  favor  Avhich  has  raised  a  humble  grammar  school  into  the  greatest 
collegiate  establishment  in  our  land.  And  we  who  are  come  up  this  day  to 
make  our  last  obeisance  to  our  venerable  parent,  cannot  consider  without 
interest,  that  power  out  of  which  she  sprang,  and  that  power  upon  whose 
character  our  own  fortunes  must  so  much  depend. 

But  the  growth  of  a  literary  seminary  is  but  an  exhibition  in  miniature 
of  that  force  of  which  I  speak.  Compared  with  some  of  its  greater  mani 
Testations,  it  is  the  application  of  the  force  of  steam  to  the  cutting  of  dia 
monds,  or  the  enchasing  of  plate.  It  is  on  the  spacious  stage  of  history, 
where  ages  are  the  time,  and  nations  the  actors,  that  I  find  the  just  exam 
pies  of  the  power  of  public  opinion  emblazoned.  What  is  the  great  lesson 
v^Q  learn  from  the  records  of  our  race  ?  What  but  this  ?  That  the  true 
Bovereign  of  the  world,  the  only  monarch  who  is  never  deposed,  and  never 
abridged  of  his  prerogative,  . 

"  Wlio  sits  on  no  precarious  throne, 
Nor  borrows  leave  to  be," 

is  Public  Opinion. 

What  is  a  throne  ?  What  is  a  legislature  ?  What  is  a  Congress  ?  ^  What 
is  a  constitution  ?  Mere  pipes,  mere  mouth  pieces,  for  the  expression  of 
Public  Opinion.  The  moment  they  cease  to  give  it  vent,  the  moment  they 
resist  and  set  up  for  original  powers,  it  breaks  in  pieces  these  venerable 
forms,  as  Daniel  broke  the  gilded  images  of  Babylonish  idolatry,  and  holds 
up  the  fragments  before  the  startled  nations,  with  the  saine  dreadful  irony, 
—  "  Lo,  these  be  the  gods  ye  worship." 

One  v;ould  think,  from  what  has  sometimes  been  advanced,  on  great  au- 
thority, that  Public  Opinion  was  a  new  power.  I  am  confident  that  it  is  a 
mistake.  Public  Opinion  is  no  new  creation,  no  stranger  in  the  world,  no 
child  of  its  old  age.  It  has  mingled  in  the  public  affairs  since  man  first 
exchanged  his  cave  in  the  w^oods  for  the  arts  and  alliances  of  civilized  hfe. 

Born  in  the  primeval  conventions  of  uncouth  savages,  its  infant  fingers 
trace  that  social  contract  to  which  the  proud  monarchies  of  the  Old  World 


*  On  taking  the  first  degree. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


pj-e  not  ashamed  to  go  back  for  the  fabidous  cliartci-  of  their  legitimacy. 
And  from  that  hour  it  has  gone  ahout  among  the  kingdoms  of  tlie  earth, 
woi-king  its  pleasure,  whether  for  good  or  for  evil.  You  may  track  its  lion 
step  across  the  Syrian  sands,  when  it  led  the  fanatic  hosts  of  Christendom 
to  pour  out  their  libations  of  blood,  and  sacrifice  their  human  hecatombs, 
in  pious  worship  of  the  Prince  of  Peace.  Or  you  may  find  its  handiwork 
in  modern  England,  when  it  spoiled  of  its  crown  the  uuAvorthy  successot 
of  a  line  of  kings  ;  washed  away  his  bahn,  and  laid  his  head  upon  the 
block;  turned  loose  an  incensed  people  to  Iiuut  down  the  remnant  of  that 
aid  house  of  tyrants,  and  purge  the  realm  of  their  unclean  influence.  But, 
by  and  by,  as  if  in  very  Avantonness,  reverting  to  its  ancient  faith  and  af- 
fections, it  recalls  the  fugitive  princes  from  their  exile,  and  rebuilds  the 
dynasty  it  had  ovei'turned. 

But,  if  the  will  of  the  people  has  always  been  the  sovereign,  imder  what 
ever  forms  it  has  been  disguised,  by  whatever  ministers  it  has  exercised 
the  functions  of  sovereignty,  it  will  be  asked,  how  are  we  to  explain  certain 
dark  passages  of  the  history  of  man  ?  If  the  people  have  been  really  the 
master,  whence  came  those  odious  institutions  which  have  preyed  from  age 
to  age,  Hke  an  liereditary  disease,  on  the  aggrieved  nations  ?  How  stole  the 
serpent  into  the  Eden  of  democracy  ?  In  Avhat  chamber  of  the  people's 
deputies,  was  the  order  of  knighthood  created  ?  What  bill  of  rights  was  it 
that  stipulated  for  the  inviolability  of  the  Canon  and  Feudal  Law  ?  What 
date  do  the  articles  of  abdication  "bear,  wherein  the  major  portion  of  man 
kind,  wearied  with  the  cares  of  government,  resign  their  irksome  state,  and 
sell  themselves  for  slaves  to  their  fellovv'-m^en  ?  Where  was  the  popular  as- 
sembly conve.i*;^'!,  which  folloAved  up  the  splendid  distinctions  of  chivalry 
in  Europe,  with  the  emoluments  and  honors  of  modern  aristocracy ;  "  gild 
ing  a  little  that  was  rich  before,"  and  lavishing  on  an  overgrown  peerage 
civil  immunities,  and  injurious  monopolies  ?  If  Public  Opinion  is  supreme, 
how  came  in  those  abuses  which  plunder  the  many  of  wealth,  and  honor 
and  freedom,  to  lay  the  costly  spoils  at  the  feet  of  a  few  ?  Crowns,  prin 
cipalities,  and  orders  of  nobility,  —  are  these  the  trophies  Avith  Avhich  Pub 

lie  Opinion  has  stroAvn  its  path  ?  Yes.    Even  these  Avere  called 

into  being  by  the  word  of  the  people.  And  all  those  political  evils  Avhich 
have  plagued  the  suffering  race  of  men,  first  sprung  into  life  at  the  Avill  of 
the  people,  and  received  at  its  OAvn  hand  their  bloody  commission ;  like 
fiends  raised  by  the  enchanter,  Avhom  they  Avill  shortly  torment.  Folly 
Avas  the  disease  of  Avhich  Public  Opinion  was  sorely  sick ;  Ignorance  Avas 
the  deadly  charm  by  Avhich  it  Avas  bound;  and  is  it  strange  that  it  lay 
powerless  along  the  land,  the  victim  of  petty  tyranny  ?  It  Avas  only  Sam- 
son submitting  his  invincible  locks  to  be  confined  by  the  fingers  of  Delilah 
with  the  pin  of  a  Aveaver's  beam.  And  Oh,  hoAV  faithfully  the  old  patri- 
arch told  its  history,  Avhen  he  prophesied  the  fortunes  of  his  unAvorthy  child  ! 
"  Issachar  is  a  strong  ass,  couching  doAvn  betAveen  tAvo  burdens ;  and  he 
saw  that  rest  Avas  good,  and  the  land,  that  it  Avas  pleasant,  and  he  bowed 
his  shoulder  to  bear,  and  became  a  serA^ant  to  tribute." 

But  these  seasons  of  patient  sufferance  do  not  ahvays  last.  And  long 
periods  of  torpid  quiescence  are  succeeded  by  awful  reactions.  It  is  this 
moment  when  Public  Opinion  changes,  —  this 'turning  of  the  tide, — that  is 
the  sublime  moment  in  the  annals  of  nations. 

"  Its  step  is  as  the  treat! 
Of  a  flood  that  leaves  its  bed, 
And  its  march  it  is  rude  desolation." 

It  bursts  thTough  the  mounds  and  levies  that  dammed  it  up,  and  strikes 
Jerror  into  ancient  societies,  and  institutions  that  lie  peacefully  over  th6 
land,  by  the  roar  of  the  inundation.  It  is  Avhen  great  events  are  pending, 
when  the  scales  of  human  destiny  are  hung  out  in  heaven,  and  the  eyes  of 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  373 

'^l\fTV}''^''^'-^]  watcliing  the  doubtful  balance,  -  when  old  system,. 
I  pin  fol^f  P'''"«'Ple^  are  a  by-word,  _  when  the  strong  attractions  which 
keep  society  ni  i  s  orbit  are  dissolved,  and  the  winds  of  Passion  go  si-hino 
by,  — It  IS  then  that  Public  Opinion  re-collects  itself  to  meet  the  solemn 
emergency  ;  leaving  its  andent  seats,  it  shakos  off  the  dust  of  centuries, 
and  c.irnes  the  human  race  forward  to  the  mark  they  are  prepared  to  reach' 
It  was  in  a  crisis  like  this,  that  the  keys  of  heaven  were  wrested  from 

mou7r5uTT  ^'S^''  Reformation  let  in  upon  a 

mouming  church.  And  when  the  clearer  light  of  another  age  revealed  t'le 
abuses  still  unreformed  Public  Opinion  invaded  once  more  the  ground  that 
was  fenced  with  ecclesiastical  interdictions,  continued  the  heroic  work,  and 

fun  ^idTrl  '  ^""^     P'!^^™^      ^^'^  ^^^^i"'  ^«  the  se  ting 

sun,  and  lodge  the  floating  ark  on  the  mountains  of  a  New  World. 

And  here  m  the  West,  it  is  at  the  bidding  of  Public  Opinion,  that  Liber 
IS  a  tVr.':;'  '1  -^^  '^'^  f}""^!       S'^"^^'  spangled  banner.  It 

hor  f^^ln1^^      i'"'^"'^'^^'  ^^'^^  ^^^""^^  across  our'rushing  streams 

ever  nS  v^  jokes  together  with  a  Cyclopean  architecture  the 

avan^ of  coiSrce  ^''^"^^  peaceful  car 

nvh  ""-^      splendid  triumphs,  it  is  still  an  unsteadfast  and  turbulent 

h  S  ^     ^^^^"^t^^"t  "dividual  mind.    And  the  annals  of  our  race 

vnln^lo  ^^^^f     records,  which  show  how  Public  Opinion  has  given  its 

fmf  Jifp     r.i   '  ""^"^  l''^^''  ^"'^"t^-    It  has  doomed  to  the  faggot 

J  Iwl  ^^'t  fT'^T.^  ?^  *^^th,  and  the  children  of  God.  It  is  as 
hTl  of  ^^f^^^ff  *r  "oly  nquisition,  and  the  Court  of  the  Star-Cham- 
bei  as  of  Bible  bocieties,  or  the  Royal  Academy. 

f  '       J  security  ?   Can  we  rear  no  bulwark  ?   Can  we  dio-  no 

and  St?LT  a'''''  ''''^u'^  and  most  venerable  establishments  of  ChSrch 
PolvnhP^n./i  ''''.'^^  embarked  in  a  frail  vessel,  and  mav  this  blind 
S^iJ  S      hi '  n"  -     P  '^-^"^  ^.  ''"'"'S  of  his  ann?    Where  is  the 

oiigin  of  Pabhc  Opinion  ?    It  is  in  private  opinion.    Each  great  national 

S  rf;o7       '  ^^t¥.?i-eat  Check,  and  safeguard,  and  regulator  in  indi 

V  dua  character  and  influence.    Obviously,  no  external  fo°rce  can  act  ou 

I  T:.    P    •  ^^'^  unmastered  power.    The  Avay  to  explode 

lie  £^;o  aTA  °  iPP'r  'l""  I^h*^  '"^^y  to  ^ole  the  ^pub- 

lic, is  to  affect  individuals.    Every  honest  citizen  whom  we  can  enlio-hten  • 

Z  jlZ^rV^r^^T'-'^'r^^^^^^^  right  views  are  enterfaine  l,' 

and  pioper  feelmgs  cherished,  is  one  more  improver  of  Public  Opinion. 

evel'v  .LpHnr'f  T  T'^l- '^^^^^  ^t  thus  originated,  how  much 
whaV^PvT  f  V."derstanding  IS  Its  natural  counsellor  and  gu  de ;  and  to 
tol  re  fl  A^  tonrnt"".?  f  ^T^^^  Mirabeau  were  the  ministers  of 

nnd  piis  on  ^^f  "°  gentlemen,  who,  in  London 

and  W  TJ  lfTy.  Presses,  but  Canning, 

fact  t]i?t  'P.^hi;n  O^'-'  sovereigns  of  the  world.'    It  is  in  this 

Sm-e^Sl^PrV  thi^PT'ri.^'  grown  wiser,  and  will  continue  to  become 
Sp  In  n;?w  •'  ,1  superiority  and  the  hope  of  our  times.  And 

eiiin  Sv  nf  tipT'^'^^  aware  that  his  opinions  are  a  portion  of  the  sov 
SfipnnT   V        fi  '^^''■y  to  conceive  his  influence  to  be  in 

von  ^tfpv  h  .  ^"s^g^iticant.    Not  a  thought  you  think,  not  a  syllable 

&v  O?'.'  In  -n r''  consequences,  affect  the  prosperity'of  you/coun 
try.    Our  world  is  framed  hke  a  vast  whispering  gallery,  —  one  of  those 

^wTf  llrf       1  ^^"'^-^^  'P°''^"'  s^-'^^'c^  trusted  to  the  silent  air,  is  sent 

rJnllj  T"""'  '""'^  '^''^'"''^  the  vaulted  walls  ;  a  thousand  babblincr'echoes 
f '^""^  '^-^  '^^^     ■'^'^^^^^^^^  the  globe  with  its  thunder 

Come  out  of  your  individual  shell.    Give  your  thoughts  to  'he  interests 


374. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


of  your  race,  and,  like  the  genie  in  Oriental  story,  who,  creeping  out  of  th« 
sasket  of  a  few  inches,  in  wliich  he  had  been  iraprisoned,  regained  his  co- 
lossal proportions,  you  will  grow  to  the  stature  of  a  godlike  intelligence. 
Nor  Avill  you  fail  of  your  reward.  Those  who,  by  their  mighty  influence, 
exert  a  Avise  control  over  the  Avill  of  the  people,  always  receive  from  the 
public  opinion  they  have  enlightened,  their  just  meed  of  praise.  It  is  a 
spectacle  we  can  never  behold  Avithout  emotion,  the  supremacy  of  one 
mind  over  this  concentrated  intelligence.  It  claims  our  reluctant  re\'erence 
for  characters  in  Avhich  the  amiable  virtues  are  Avanting.  The  moral  merit 
of  CromAvell  is  exceedingly  questionable ;  but  his  astonishing  mastery  of 
the  pubhc  mind,  and  the  energies  he  wielded  in  the  cause  of  liberty,  have 
procured  him  the  endless  gratitude  of  freemen. 

"  For,  if  A\-c  Avould  speak  true, 

Much  to  the  man  is  due, 
"VYlio  from  liis  private  garilciis,  wliere 
He  lived  reserved  and  austere, 

As  if  his  liigliest  plot, 

To  plant  the  Bergamot, 
Could  by  industrious  valor  climb 
To  ruin  the  gr"eat  work  of  Time, 

And  cast  the  kingdoms  old 

Into  another  mould." 

Biit,  Avhere  virtues  and  talents  have  alike  contributed  to  invest  an  indi 
v^idual  Avith  this  authority  over  his  cotemporaries,  public  opinion  rejoices 
to  pay  its  instructor  a  heartv  tribute  of  deserved  praise.  It  has  lately  been 
dgnally  manifested,  in  the  deep  sympathy  in  our  loss,  on  the  resignation  of 
his  seat  at  the  head  of  the  universitA^  by  one,  for  so  many  years,  its  orna- 
ment and  pride.  I  cannot  speak  of  President  Kirkland  Avithout  a  croAvd  of 
affectionate  recollections,  which,  I  am  sure,  are  Aipiiliar  to  all  Avho  hear  me. 
For  he  Avas  one  of  that  truly  fine  genius  Avhich  identified  his  character  Avith 
the  institution  in  Avhich  he  sat.  Whilst  he  remained  here,  his  elegant  mind 
rained  influence  on  all  that  harbored  in  its  halls ;  and  it  Avas  not  easy;  for 
dulness  to  come  under  his  eye  without  being  sAveetened  and  refined.  The 
stranger  Avho  saAv  him,  Avent  away  glad  that  there  Avas  so  much  savor  m 
human  Avit.  He  Avas  a  living  refutation  of  that  ancient  calumny,  that  col 
leo-es  make  men  morose  and  unskilful  in  the  science  of  human  nature.  Ho 
had  a  countenance  that  Avas  like  a  benediction.  And  Avhat  Avith  his  liberal 
heart,  his  rich  conversation,  and  the  grace  of  his  accomplished  manners,  he 
reflected  a  light  upon  this  seminary,  Avhich  a  just  community  have  not 
failed,  and  shall  not  fail  to  repay  Avith  lasting  honor. 


Example. 

OF  A  VALEDICTORY  ENGLISH  ORATION. 
Second  Degree  —  Master^s  Oration. 

In  selecting  for  our  topic,  "  The  Spirit  that  should  accompany  our  Eepub 
lican  Institutions,"  let  it  not  be  anticipated  that  Ave  are  bringing  hither  a 
political  tirade  to  fret  and  raA^e  about  ourselves,  or  that  Ave  mean  to  run  mad 
at  the  sound  of  our  own  A^oice,  as  it  pronounces  the  word  "  republic."  We 
have  not  arrayed  ourselves,  gladiator  like,  to  attack  or  defend  public  meas- 
ures, —  to  desipatch  in  the  fcAV  moments  allotted  us  all  the  political  questions 
that  noAv  interest  us  as  a  people,  — or  to  set  right  the  executive,  legislatiA'e 
and  judicial  departments  of  our  government,  in  the  short  period  of  twenty 
minutes-.  We  come  not  to  battle  Avith  pohticians,  Avhoever  they  may  be 
and  whether  thev  stand  on  either  bank,  or  in  the  middle  of  the  Rubicon. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION".  375 

mi^firpnn'ntr?  '-I^'P  1-cgimcnts  of  tliem  with  a  sentence,  or  to  blow 

ri  wi t  o,  f  7l  i  '  S^t^nic  0  words.  No  ;  we  would  dwell  upon  this 
f>pint,  Avithout  taknig  tlie  word  "i^ohtics"  upon  our  lips  These  ]nvfl 
entered  n.to  and  contaminated  every  other  place, -let  h?  hou  e  of  God 
the  temple  of  literature,  be  sacred  a  little  longer    Let  there  be  one  spot 

V^^:mu^:'1^lf'ff^''''?  ^"^^^  retreat  from  political,'taIking  Jan 
VVe  |Mil  not  be  the  first  to  tread  it  with  a  sacrilegious  step    No:  n  the 

Sme"tV;Z''       r^'^'''  f  ^hoes^on  Mount  Horeb  "  be- 

pHce  to  sifexl       )h.?''"       f^f  was  holy,"  we  would  venture  in  this 

Sovmen  o?  on/ ni.fr '^^-'^-^^  '^'"''^^  ^^^^^^  '^^i^^^^e  us  in  the 
enjo^^ment  ot  our  peculiar  institutions. 

boni"  m^ltf  5^';?;/'  ''''  "^^T'  f '  republican  assembly, 

Sf  /         u  surrounded  and  supported  by  the  spirit  of  free 

en   the'^^v^v  t '"^^     T      ''''''  ''''P'''''''  ^^an  tLt  wlifch  opens  to 
mem  tLe  way  in  which  they  can  most  safely  keep,  and  most  nerfpctlv 

S''Mw1'is"owi"Jr"  •  .  ''''^  '^"^^^^"^S-  tl^^m  is  accorSJSi^hlcf 
ine  battle  is  o\er,  the  victory  is  won,  and  our  fathers  are  at  rest  Thesf* 

lei  0  °Thev  .VP  H   ^r^'  'r'""'  ''^'^  moie,  nor  d;tractn 

inLl  ^  ^""^S"^^*  '^^^^^  P^^i^^  foi--    But  they  are  ours  under  a 

seive  'W'"^^"'"  ^'""^         '^'^'^  the  truft  that  we  will  p^e 

n?i h?'  r      ""T  ^""^^''^  ^'^t      ^'^'^11  discharge  this  hio-h  and  hon 

S-fperSi^rS  ?  ''w/  ^^'l'^^^"^     "  ^'^^ht  spirit,  and  exercise^Si^m  upoa 
piopei  piinciples.   We  speak  not  extravagantly,  then,  when  we  sav  that  in 
f  sacred  that  spirit  whidi  wih  adorn  .id  penDetu^^^^ 

'oSf  t^e''  '^'^  ''''        ^'^"^^S  t^^^^^  ^^'-^^t,  theii  f?ee  com'e! 

consists  the  whole  duty  of  our  generation;  and  that  wheA  this  ceases  to  he 

Ini'Situde  hivM^o''"?  1?        7^^'  deservf  them.  Honor 

bet-lhose"^^^^^^^^^  attamed,-honor  and  gratitude  shall 

a  s^piSt'of'n^^^^^^  f''^  place,  whose  claims  Ave  would  advocate,  is 

opposite     Z  TrnJiil  "  '°  f""™       mstutions  ;  ostentation  is  its  very 

Se  fortre  w„;,7''y''  *^'»'y"°  can.-Iiowiie  could  l  ave  beeS 

and  suP^nfn.      tiiey  happened  to  be  born  where  these  had  been  planted  - 
roFtte^  U  oo.ene 


376 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 


is  a  lovely  damsel,  with  simple  mien,  retiring  manners,  and  chaste  array- 
There  is  nothing  about  her  to  remind  one  of  a  flower  garden  in  distress,  oi 
a  rainbow  bewitched.  Wiiat  is  gaudy,  she  hates,  —  display  is  bev  abomi 
nation.  The  scene  of  her  glory  is  at  honre,  acting,  not  speaking  her  praises. 
This  is  individual  modesty,  and  national  modesty  is  the  same  damsel  grown 
into  a  discreet  and  stately  matron.  She  has  changed  her  robes,  it  is  true, 
but  not  tiieir  character  nor  her  own.  She  is  still  the  same,  only  more  per- 
fect in  her  principles,  as  she  is  more  extended  in  her  influence,  — seen  only 
in  the  unassuming  deportment  of  her  children,  —  heard  only  in  the  voice 
of  their  enterprise,  —  known,  as  every  good  tree  is,  only  by  her  fruits.  We 
would  honor  the  matron,  as  we  courted  the  damsel.  We  would  hold  her  fust, 
for  she  is  our  ornament;  —  we  would  love  her,  for  she  is  altogether  lovely. 

We  would  not,  —  for  it  is  the  spirit  that,  in  the  second  place,  we  would 
advocate,  —  we  would  not,  for  we  dare  not,  decry  that  national  pride,  hon 
est,  open,  high-minded  pride,  which  originates  in  self  respect,  is  nurtured 
by  all  the  generous  sympathies  that  gather  round  the  name  of  our  native 
land,  and  which  brings  forth  as  its  fruits  national  enterprise  and  _  strength, 
and  what  is  more,  national  virtue.  National  pride  in  this  sense  is  patriot- 
ism, and  who  shall  decry  patriotism  ?  But  the  vanity  that  we  condemn 
is  opposite  in  its  every  look,  feature,  and  gesture,  to  this  honorable  virtue, 
and  it  is  because  we  think  it  so,  that  we  do  condemn  it.  Vanity  is  mean, — 
patriotism  is  noble.    Vanity  is  dangerous, — patriotism  is  our  bulwark. 


tongue,  —  that  of  the  other  the  heart.  An  old  poet  has  said  of  a  somewhat 
difterent  passion,  —  and  there  are  those  who  hear  me  who  can  baar  witness 
to  its  truth,  —  that 


"  Passions  are  likened  best  to  floods  and  streams ; 
Tlie  sliallow  murmur,  —  but  tlie  deep  are  dumb ; 
So  when  afi'ections  yield  discourse,  it  seems 
The  bottom  is  but  shallow  whence  they  come. 
They  that  are  ricli  in  words  must  needs  discover, 
They  are  but  poor  in  that  which  makes  a  lover." 


And  there  is  philosophy  as  well  as  poetry  in  the  idea. 

Is  it  asked,  then,  who  is  the  friend,  the  firm,  true-hearted,  evei-to-be- 
trusted  friend  of  our  institutions  ?  We  would  answer,  not  he  who  is  perched 
upon  the  house-top,  shouting  hosannas  to  the  four  corners  of  the  earth,  and 
proclaiming  to  the  world,  "  Lo,  here,  and  here  alone,  perfection  has  taken 
up  her  abode  ;  "  but  rather  he  who  has  placed  himself  at  the  bottom,  in  the 
most  honorable  of  all  attitudes,  that  of  strenuous  yet  unassuming  exertion ; 
—  not  he  who  talks,  but  he  who  does  the  most.  Is  it  asked  again,  where, 
then,  are  we  to  look  for  the  praises  of  these  institutions  at  home,  and  their 
acceptance  and  diffusion  abroad  ?  We  would  answer  again,  not  to  the 
dangerous  sweeping  panegyrics  of  us  and  ours,  or  the  more  dangerous 
sweeping  denunciations  of  all  others  and  all  things  else,  but  to  the  good 
they  have  done,  the  evil  thev  have  prevented,  the  happiness  they  have  dif 
fused,  the  misery  they  have"  healed  or  mitigated.  Ask  of  honest  industry, 
why  she  labors  with  a  strong  hand  and  a  smiling  face.  Ask  of  commerce, 
why  she  dances,  like  a  sailor  boy,  in  the  breeze,  joyous  and  impatient.  Lis- 
ten to  the  busy,  gladsome  hum  of  art  mingling  with  the  voice  of  nature  on 
every  stream,  and  the  song  of  contentment  blending  with  and  perfecting 
the  melody.  Behold  education,  the  inmate  of  the  humblest  dwelling,  — 
man  enlightened,  thinking  for  himself,  and  worshipping  his  maker  in  the 
only  acceptable  way,  his  OAvn  Avay.  Look  at  yourselves,  your  children, 
your  homes.  And  if  you  see  not,  hear  not,  feel  not,  the  praises  of  these  in- 
stitutions in  all  these,  eloquence  cannot  varnish  them.  Let  them  begone, 
they  are  not  what  thev  seem  to  be. 

The  spirit,  again,  whose  claims  we  Avould  advocate  as  an  accompaniment 
of  our  institutions,  is  a  spirit  of  national  moderation.  The  theory,  and  may 
it  ever  be  the  practicafeftsct  of  these  institutions,  is  this,  that  every  free 


power.    The  organ  of  the  one  is  the 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


377 


member  of  the  community,  be  he  high  or  Ioav,  rich  or  poor,  has  a  right, 
equal  and  unquestionable,  to  think,  speak,  and  act  upon  every  measure  or 
iginating  among  and  interesting  us  as  a  people.  And,  still  further,  the  fuU 
development  of  these  institutions  demands  the  fair  and  unsha^c.kled  exer 
tion  of  this  right.  Take  this  single  fact  in  comiexion  with  the  history  of 
man.  What  is  the  history  of  man,  we  mean  political  man,  as  he  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  community  and  the  subject  of  government  ?  It  is  but  a  history  of 
parties,— of  this  side  and  that  side  of  some  undefinable  line,  the  direction  cf 
which  no  earthly  philosophy  can  trace.  Yes  ;  strange  as  it  may  seem,  and 
inconsistent  Avith  that  rank  in  creation  to  which  man  has  laid  claim,  ever 
since  the  time  when  Abraham  and  Lot  went  one  to  the  right  hand  and  the 
other  to  the  left,  men  have  divided  themselves  into  parties,  at  the  name  of 
which  the  human  tongue  falters,  and  the  human  understanding  shrinks 
aghast.  And  this  has  been  the  case,  while,  instead  of  a  general  freedom  of 
speech  and  action,  a  fcAV  only  of  men,  a  very  few,  have  been  acknowledged 
to  be  human  beings,  and  all  the  rest  have  been  left  to  make  themselves  out 
so.  What  is  to  be  the  consequence  noAv,  when  all  are  admitted  to  be  so? 
Jarnng  and  confusion,  and  consequent  destruction,  have  made  up  the  story 
of  mankind,  while  tyranny  bi'idled  their  tongues,  and  despotism  hung  like 
a  dead  weight  upon  their  spirits.  What  is  to  be  the  result  now,  when  tyr- 
anny and  despotism  have  been  hurled  "  to  the  moles  and  the  bats,"  and 
the  tongue  and  the  spirit  of  every  man  are  admitted,  required  to  be  free  ? 
The  history  of  our  race,  we  perceive,  reads  us  but  a  sorry  lesson  upon  the 
subject.  And  the  history  of  our  own  country  forms  by  no  means  a  perfect 
exception  to  the  rule  ;  for  an  old  Spanish  author,  not  a  hundred  years  ago, 
declared,  "  that  the  air  of  that  country  ycleped  America,  was  marvellously 
infectious,  and  inclined  men's  minds  to  wrangling  and  contention." 

But  the  spirit  which,  if  any  can,  must  put  an  end  to  this  hitherto  close 
alliance  between  freedom  and  contention,  —  the  spirit  which,  like  our  liber- 
ties, is  nowhere  to  be  found  in  history,  but  which  must  spring  up  with  and 
protect  them,  is  a  spirit  of  national  moderation,  —  that  generous,  Christian 
spirit,  which  is  cool  while  it  thinks,  and  charitable  while  it  speaks  and  acts, 
—  that  spirit  which,  if  experience  does  not  sanction,  reason  does,  and 
which,  if  to  be  found  in  no  other  record,  is  yet  found  and  enforced  in  that 
of  the  pattern  of  all  institutions  —  Christianity.  Yes  ;  the  single  consider- 
ation, —  and  we  need  no  other,  —  the  single  consideration  of  the  broad  ex- 
^nt  of  our  liberties,  is  in  itself  the  most  eloquent  advocate  of  moderation. 
Perfect  freedom  must  take  her  for  its  handmaid,  for  wherever  it  has  started 
vrithout  her,  it  has  failed.  That  which,  if  any  thing  can,  must  distinguish 
the  history  of  the  present  from  that  of  all  past  time,  is  the  operation  of  the 
true  republican  principle,  that  the  full  enjoyment  of  hberty  by  all  depends 
upon  the  moderate  use  of  it  by  each. 

But  why  argue  an  abstract  principle  '?  Who  are  thev  that  oppose  it  ? 
What  is  It  that  impedes  its  progress  ?  We  are  not  decrying,  —  God  forbid 
that  we  ever  should,  —  a  spirit  of  free,  open  discussion.  On  the  contrary, 
we  advocate  it  as  the  life-blood  of  our  institutions,  the  very  promoter  of 
moderation.  It  is  an  abandonment  of  this  fair  discussion  that  we  condemn 
as  fatal  to  it,  —  a  willingness  to  act  in  obedience  to  other  than  our  own  un- 
biassed judgment.  It  is  they  who  would  surrender  their  personal  independ- 
ence for  the  bondage  of  patizans,  Avho  would  sacrifice  their  sacred  birth- 
right of  free  thought  and  action,  to  become  the  meanest,  because  the  volun- 
tary slaves  of  another,  Avho  must  answer  for  the  discord  and  confusion  that 
result.  Who  is  he  that  talks  of  freedom  and  equality  and  rights,  and  yet 
thinks  as  another  man  thinks,  acts  as  he  acts,  and  simply  because  that 
other  bids  him  so  think  and  act  ?  If  this  be  libertv,  that  liberty  of  which 
v/e  have  heard  so  much,  give  us  back  again  the  dark  ages,  for  then,  at  least, 
■we  shall  not  see  the  chain  that  binds  us  to  the  earth. 

_  Opposed  also  to  tliis  spirit  of  moderation,  is  that  desire  of  controversial 
distinction  in  the  younger  members  of  the  community,  which,  v/hen  it  ha* 
32* 


878 


AIDS  TO   ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


well  spiced  their  tongue  and  embittered  their  pen,  produces  what  is  called 

a  young  politician.  I  know  not  a  more  amusing,  were  it  not  so  dangerous 
a  specimen  of  our  race,  as  this  class  of  inexperienced  yet  fiery  combatants. 
Thev  come  into  the  world,  and  the  first  cry  you  hear  is,  "  We  must  fight. 
Our' fathers  and  our  grandfathers  fought,  and  why  should  not  we  ?  True, 
we  have  nothing  very  special  to  fight  about,  but  still  we  must  fight.  The 
old  party  fires  have  been  burning  only  half  a  century  ;  why  put  them  out 
so  soon  ?  And  the  questions  that  kindled  them,  though  a  little  out  of  date, 
have  still  two  sides  left  and  what  need  we  more  ?  "  And  so  the  battle  begins, 
—  would  that  it  might  end  where  it  began,  —  in  simple,  unattained,  and 
Unattainable  nothing.  We  admire  their  zeal,  applaud  their  ingenuity  ar© 
astonished  at  their  more  than  Quixotic  valor  ;  but  we  laugh  at  their  sim- 
plicity, we  wonder  at  their  folly,  Ave  deprecate  their  eff'ects.^  We  would 
trust  our  institutions  to  cooler  heads  and  safer  hands.  Experience,  —  that 
grey  headed  old  gentleman,  who  followed  time  into  the  world,  and  who  was 
cotemporary  with  wisdom,  ere  the  foundations  of  the  earth  were  laid,  is  al- 
together the  safest  guardian  of  such  precious  treasures.  True,  he  may  not 
harangue  Avith  quite  so  much  rapidity  and  fierceness  as  these  fluent  usurp 
ers  of  his  place ;  but  the  Avords  Avhich  drop  slowly  from  his  honored  lips  are 
full  as  Avise  and  full  as  Avorthy  of  preservation  as  tlieirs.  And  though  he 
stand  leaning  upon  his  staff,  and  looking  Avith  straining  eyes,  we  Avould 
trust  to  his  vision  quite  as  implicitly,  as  to  that  of  the  stately,  elastic  youth, 
who,  Avitli  younger  and  brighter  eyes,  does  not  always  see.  We  Avould  call 
back  this  venerable  seer  from  his  obscurity.  He  is  groAving  old  fashioned. 
We  would  array  him  in  a  modern  costume,  and  set  him  in  our  high  places. 
The  free  air  of  our  country  Avill  rencAv  his  youth,  and  he,  in  return,  Avill 
build  up  our  institutions  in  the  spirit  of  Avisdom  and  moderation. 

We  would  banish  from  amongst  us,  then,  these  and  all  other  dispositions 
which  stand  in  the  wav  of  that'national  moderation  Avhich  Ave  deem  so  es- 
sential. And  then,  behold  a  contrast !  Place  yourself  upon  the  highest 
elevation  that  overlooks  your  country.  Banish  moderation  from  the  mul- 
titude beneath  you.  You  may  have  heard  the  roar  of  the  thunder,  and  the 
lashing  of  the  ocean,  but  you  have  heard  music,  literal  music,  compared 
with  the  roar  and  lashing  of  an  immoderate,  uncharitable,  angry,  free 
people.  But  look  again,  — she  has  returned.  Behold  the  sublimest  sight 
Avhich  the  earth  can  afford,  — ten  millions  of  freemen,  different  each  from 
the  other,  yet  with  a  common  country,  a  common  interest,  and  a  common 
hope,  meeting,  discussing,  differing-  indeed  in  opinion  about,  common  meas- 
ures,—but  the  time  for  action  has  come,  — they  have  gone  up  like  Chris- 
tian men  to  discharge  their  duty  to  their  country,  — it  is  over,  — they  have 
gone,  like  Christian  men,  to  discharge  their  duty  to  themselves.  Be  the 
latter  picture  ours,  and  freedom  Avill  indeed  be  a  goddess ;  be  it  ours,  and 
Ave  could  almost  sav  that  a  little  vanity  Avould  be  excusable. 

From  speaking  of  the  spirit  Avhich  should  animate  us  as  members  ot  oiir 
great  republic,  the  occasion  naturally  brings  us  for  a  moment  to  the  spirit 
Avith  Avhich  Ave  meet  as  members  of  that  smaller  republic  of  letters,  Avhose 
anniversary  has  this  day  brought  us  together.  To  those  of  us  who  here 
meet  again.  Avhere  a  short  time  since  Ave  parted,  the  occasion  is  one  of 
mino-led  feelings.  We  have  gathered  again  in  this  great  congregation,  and 
around  this  sacred  altar ;  but  not  all.  In  the  little  time  that  has  elapsed 
since  our  separation,  three  of  our  number,  and  among  them  one  who,  m 
the  event  which  has  placed  him  whom  you  hear  before  you,  Avould  have  so 
much  more  ably  filled  the  spot  Avhere  I  am  standing,  have  joined  that 
neater  conoregation,  around  a  holier  altar.  The  thought  is  a  solemn  and 
melancholy  one.  But  as,  in  the  wisdom  of  Providence,  they  were  not  per- 
mitted to  enter  upon  the  public  stage,  the  feelings  at  their  loss  belong  not 
to  the  pubHc.  It  is  not  here  that  we  should  speak  of  their  virtues,  w  uch 
we  loved,  —  or  of  their  talents,  which  Ave  respected.  These  feelings  belong 
to  us  as  individuals,  and  as  members  of  that  little  circle,  their  connexion 
vdth  AThich  Ave  shall  ahvavs  hold  in  pleasing  recollection 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  379 

But  we  look  round  again  and  bshold  another  wide  breach  has  been  made 
<\-itlim  t  us  short  period,  in  which  all  of  us  have  a  common  interest.  The 
venerable  head  ol  our  institution,  *  — the  guardian,  instructor,  friend,  the 
hiUier  of  his  pupils,  — he  under  wliosc  benignant  auspices  we  commenced 
and  completed  our  collegiate  career,  and  who  dismissed  us  from  these  hos 
pitable  walls  with  a  parental  blessing,  no  longer  occupies  that  seat  which 
tie  tilled  so  long,  so  honorably,  and  so  usefully.  We  would  mingle  our  re- 
gret ^ylth  the  general  feeling  that  has  gone  with  him  to  his  retirt^nent.  We 
'^'ouId  send  to  hmi  the  grateful  remembrance  and  filial  atlcction  of  those 
who  will  ever  be  proud  to  rem^ember  -their  connexion  with  him.  AVe  would 
bid  him  farewell  on  this  spot,  consecrated  by  associations  which  will  ever 
bnng  hmi  to  our  remembrance.  In  the  nanie  of  that  education  which  he 
-idvanced,  of  that  literature  Avhich  he  encouraged,  of  that  religion  Avhich  he 
adorned,  we  would  bid  him  an  afiectionate  farewell.  We  pray  that  the  old 
age  ot  that  man  may  be  serene  and  cheerful,  whose  youth  has  been  so  bril- 
liant, and  whose  manhood  so  useful.  The  smiles  of  a  kind  Providence  be 
ever  with  hira.  The  conscience  of  a  faithful  steward  is  his  reward  here  — 
Ills  reward  liereafter  he  has  learned  from  higher  authority  ' 

^\lth  these  feelings  of  regret  to  sadden  this  otherwise  joyous  occasion, 
may  It  not  have  been  well  for  us  to  have  occupied  it  in  dwelling  upon  tho 
spirit  that  should  accompany  those  institutions,  into  the  midst  of  which  we 
arc  hastening.  _  It  is  to  the  young  men  of  our  times  that  the  call  of  our  in- 
stirations  on  this  subject  is  the  loudest.  Be  it  theirs,  then,  to  cultivate  and 
difiuse  this  spirit.  _  And  then,  what  if  no  trumpet-tongued  orator  shall  rise 
up  to  proclaim  their  praises,  — Avhat  if  eloquence  be  dumb,  — the  tono-ue  of 
man  silent  ?  Ihey  have  a  heaven-born  eloquence,  sweeter  than  musfc,  yet 
auder  than  thunder,  -  the  eloquence  of  truth.  They  have  an  argument, 
^^hlch,  though  It  speak  not,  is  heard  through  the  universe,  -  the  argument 
of  a  good  cause,  on  a  sound  bottom.  Let  the  spirit  that  should  accompany 
them  be  abroad,  — let  national  modesty,  moderation,  charity,  independence 
and,  above  a  ,  the  spirit  of  Christianity,  be  their 'guard,  and  then,  like 
Uinstiamty,  the  powers  of  nature  may  strive  against  them,  but  they  wiU 
stand  for  they  are  founded  upon  a  rock.  Man  cannot  overthrow  them,  and 
the  Almighty  wiU  not.  ' 

£lxample 

OF  A  VALEDICTORY  ORATION  IN  LATIN. 

Omnibus  nunc  rite  et  feliciter  peractis,  restat,  auditores  spectatissimi  ut 
<obis  pro  hac  benevolentia  gratias  agamus,  omnia  fausta  precemur,  et  pace 
decedere  et  valere  vos  jubeamus.  Si  spectandi  et  audiendi  vos  tfedet,  ut 
citissime  abeatis  prsestabimus.  ' 

Sed  primum,  omnibus  qui  adestis,  quod  tarn  frequentes  convenistis  tarn 
atteiite  audistis,  tarn  benigne  plausistis,  gratias  bene  meritas  ao-imu's-  — 
vobis  pr^cipue,  virgines  dilectse,  matronesque  honorata3,  juvenibus  virisque 
spes  et  solatium.  Qmd  nostra  comitia  sine  vobis  ?  Quid  nos  disertos,  elo- 
quentes  denique  efficeret,  si  non  ut  aribus  oculisque  vestris  nos  commende- 
remus      Etsi  nonnullce 

"  Spectatum  veniunt,  veniunt  spcctentur  ut  ipsaj,"  — 
et  ignoscimus  et  probamus.    Cur  venimus  nos  javenes,  nos  vln\  nisi  ut 
8pectemur,_audiamiir  et  ipsi  ?    Sed  plures,  nimirura,  ut  audiatis,  ut  oculis, 
linguis,  votis  faveatis.    Igitur  grates,  sed  '  ?  » 

"  Grates'  persolvcres  dignas 
is  on  opis  est  nosti-cc. ' ' 


Rev.  John  Tliomton  Kirldand. 


380 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COIMPOSITION. 


Vir  excel! entissime,  nostras  reipublicse  princeps,  te  ex  animo  salutamus, 
BC  virum  tantum,  bonisque  omnibus  tarn  probatum,  nostris  adesse  comitna 

^^Virum  tibi  conjunctissimum,patria3que  et  virtutis  fautoribus  carissimixm, 
ac,  dum  vixerit,  integritatis,  prudentias,  omnisque  virtutis  exemplum,  in 
sedes  altiores  arcessitum,  tecum  lugemus.  Sed  bonorum  animis,  omnium 
desiderio,  "  Manet  mansurumque  est  quidquid  in  eo  amavimus,  quidquid 
admirati  sumus.    Placide  quiescat."  .  ^    -  i 

Preeclara  quidem  nostras  reipublicffi  felicitas  videtur,  quum  inter  tam  mul- 
tos  virtute  eximios  nemo  ob  amorem  erga  illam  insignem  se  reddere  poj:est} 
quum  omnia  prospere  pulchreque  eveniunt.  Florenlibus  rebus,  sunama  hu 
jus  reipublicje  tranquilitate,  summa  concordia,  respublica  mihi  quidem  eS 
aliis  multis  ut  confido  carissima  tuis  auspiciis  evasit  nova  ;  *  olim  quidera 
terris  nunc  re  et  legibus  a  vobis  disjuncta  ;  ut  aliam  sese  libertatis  vindicein 
exhibeat,  alium  amicitise  vinculum adjiciat.  Perduret  atque  valeat.  Vale, 
vir  excellentissime.  -,,     ^       •  -i 

Et  tu,  honoratissime,  cui  virticem  setate  provecto  albentem  ciyiles  usque 
ambiunthonores  ;  et  vos,  Conciliarii,  Curatoresque  honorandi,  quibus  taven 
tibus  et  adiuvantibus,  vigent  res  summa  nostraque  Academia,  valete.  _ 

Vale  et  tu,  Praeses  reverende  et,  si  mihi  liceat,  carissime,  cujus  praesidic 
lumen  veritatis,  patrum  auspiciis  in  nostraj  Academic  penetralibus  olirn  ac- 
censum,  fulsit  fulgetque  novo  semper  purioreque  splendore.   Lsto  sempiter 

"^Valete  Professores  eruditissimi  ac  pra^stantissimi !  Quibus  eloquemur 
verbis  quanta  observantia  vos  habemus,  quam  gratis  animis  vestrum  in  nos 
assiduorum  laborum,  curajque  vigilantis  recordamur?  _  Sit  vobis  hoc  excel 
sum  et  pene  divinum  munus  et  prasmium.  Omnibus  qui  merentur  certissime 

ArSci  sodalesque  carissimi,  iterum  denique,  post  aliquod  temporis  inter 
vallum,  convenimus,  ut  liis  sedibus  amatis,  quas  veluti  beatorum_  msulas 
doientes  reliquimus,  nostrJB  custodibus  juventutis  mento  honoratis,  nobis 
invicem  et  iUis  valedicemus.  Quis  enim,  quum  temporis  inter  camainas  et 
cum  amicis  acti  reminiscitur,  dolorem  non  sentiat  quod  his  omnibus  nimiuni 
cito  sese  eripere,  marique  incerto  ac  tumultuoso  se  committere  oporteat, 
nunquam  rediturum,  nunquam  sodalium  ora  jucunda  aspecturum  .  Inter- 
jecto  jam  nunc  brevi  tantum  triennio,  multos  optime  dilectos  oculis  ani- 
xnoque  frustra  requirimus.  .       ,    ,.   .        -u  -u  • 

Quidef^o  non  audio  tantum?  Eorum  quos  mter-lectissimos  habuimus, 
alter  morti  occubuit,  alter  in  terris  externis  abest.  Quid  lUos  aut  alios 
quos  amavimus  a  me  nominari  nccesse  sit  ?  Quisque  vestrum  eos  requint, 
quisque  desiderat.    Valeant  omnes  qui  absunt,  et  vos,  amici  fratresque, 

^'^Vo!  quoque  valete,  omnes  qui  adestis,  —  senes  atque  iuvenes  quibus  for 
oma  fida  et  quibus  perfida,  —  matronai  virginesque,  quil?us  sit  decor  quibua 
lue  desit;  —  vobis  adsint  ante  omnia  virtus, 

"  Lis  nunquam,  togn  rara,  mens  quieta, 
Vires  ingenuse,  salubrc  corpus  ; 
Quod  sitis  esse  velitis,  niliilque  malitis. 


*  Anno  1820,  resp.  Maine  a  rep.  Mass.  se  separavlt. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


381 


XCVI. 

A  BOWDOEN"  PRIZE  DISSERTATION. 
Example, 

Essay  on  the  Literary  Character  of  Br.  Samuel  Johnson. 

While  an  author  is  living,  it  is  not  extraordinaryifthat  mankind  should 
form  an  erroneous  estimate  of  his  works.    The  influence  which  prejudice 
and  partiality  often  possess  over  the  minds  of  his  contemporaries,  is  incom 
patibie  with  a  correct  decision  of  his  merits.    It  is  not  until  time  has  ef- 
faced the  recollection  of  party  feelings,  when  the  virtues  and  foibles  of  the 
man  are  forgotten,  and  the  warm  emotions  of  friendship  or  resentment 
are  no  longer  felt,  that  the  merit  of  an  author  can  be  fairly  ascertained. 
So  variable  is  public  opinion,  which  is  often  formed  without  examination, 
and  liable  to  be  warped  by  caprice,  that  v/orks  of  real  merit  are  frequently 
left  for  posterity  to  discover  and  admire,  while  the  pompous  efforts  of  im- 
pertinence and  folly  are  the  wonders  of  the  age.    The  gigantic  genius  of 
Shakspeare  so  far  surpassed  the  learning  and  penetration  of  his  times,  that 
his  productions  were  then  little  read  and  less  admired.    There  were  few 
who  could  understand,  and  still  fewer  who  could  relish  the  beauties  of  a 
writer  whose  style  was  as  various  as  his  talents  were  surprising.    The  im- 
mortal Milton  suffered  the  mortification  of  public  neglect,  after  having  en- 
riched the  hterature  of  his  country  with  a  poem,  which  has  since  been 
esteemed  the  most  beautiful  composition  in  his  language ;  and  his  poetical 
talents,  which  entitled  him  to  a  reputation  the  most  extensive  and  gratify 
ing,  could  scarcely  procure  for  him,  in  his  own  times,  a  distinction  above 
contemporary  authors  who  are  now  forgotten.    Ignorance  and  interest, 
envy  and  political  rancor,  have  concealed  from  public  notice  works,  which 
»he  enlightened  intelligence  of  after  ages  have  delighted  to  rescue  from 
;)blivion  ;  and  it  is  no  less  common  for  posterity  to  forget  ephemei-al  pro- 
ductions, which  were  the  admiration  of  the  day  in  which  they  were  pro- 
duced. ^ 
^  In  a  retrospect  of  the  literature  of  any  age,  the  mind  views  the  respec- 
iive  authors  as  a  group  of  statues,  which  a  cusory  glance  of  the  eye  discov- 
ers at  a  distance  ;  and  although,  on  a  nearer  examination,  it  could  admire 
the  features  and  beauties  discoverable  in  those  of  a  diminutive  appearance, 
yet  the  energetic  expression  and  lofty  attitude  of  some  who  overtop  the  rest, 
exclusively  attract  our  notice  and  command  attention.    Perhaps  there  has 
been  no  age  concerning  which  this  remark  is  more  justly  applicable,  than 
the  eighteenth  century.    In  that  period,  a  most  numerous  army  of  authors 
took  the  field,  gi-eater  perhaps  in  number,  but  not  exceeding  in  height  of 
stature,  excellence  of  skill,  or  brilliance  of  achievement,  the  great  men  of 
the  three  preceding  centuries. 

\n  contemplating  this  collection  of  writers,  the  attention  is  necessarily 
withdrawn  from  those  over  whom  the  towering  genius  of  Dr.  Johnson 
seems  to  bend,  and  is  attracted  by  the  colossal  statue  which  represents  the 
gigantic  powers  of  his  mind.  Whether  we  regard  the  variety  of  his  talents, 
^  the  soundness  of  his  judgment,  the  depth  of  his  penetration,  the  acuteness 
of  his  sagacity,  the  subtleness  of  his  reasoning  faculty,  or  the  extent  of  his 
knowledge,  he  is  equally  the  subject  of  astonishment  and  admiration, 

It  will  not,  perhaps,  be  hazardous  to  affirm,  that  within  the  range  of  an 


882 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMFOSITION. 


cient  and  modern  history,  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  point  out  a 
single  individual,  in  whom  was  discoverable  so  various  a  combination  of 
literary  accomplishments.  It  may  also  be  safely  affirmed,  that  he  seemed 
to  possess  a  mind  which  actually  contained  a  greater  and  more  variegated 
mass  of  knowledge  than  any  other  person  has  been  knoAvn  to  possess.  It 
will  not,  however,  be  surprising,  that  his  productions  excited  the  wonder  and 
astonishment  of  mankind,  when  we  reflect,  that  he  had  a  memory  which  at 
any  moment  could  furnish  him  with  all  that  he  had  ever  read,  and  a  judg 
ment  which  could  exactly  combine  and  compare,  analyze  and  aggregate, 
the  most  subtle  reasoning,  and  a  love  of  learning  never  satiated  by  indul 
gence.  A  clear  head  and  nice  discrimination,  a  logical  method  and  mathe 
matical  precision,  rendered  him  one  of  the  most  powerful  reasoners  of  hi? 
age.  A  character  so  eminent,  it  is  not  hkely  could  pass  his  own  times 
without  much  animadvei-sion  and  much  praise.  As  he  was  the  most  con- 
spicuous literary  man  of  his  nation,  it  is  not  matter  of  suprise,  that  we  find 
written  of  him  more  than  it  would  he  safe  implicitly  to  credit,  and  presump 
tion  universally  to  disbelieve.  Soon  after  his  death,  he  was  very  justly 
compared  to  the  sick  lion  in  the  fable,  whom,  Avhile  livmg,  few  had  the 
temerity  to  attack,  but  against  whom,  when  in  the  defenceless  state  of  3 
corse,  ail  in  whom  the  malignancy  of  env_y,  or  the  voice  of  prejudice,  or 
the  excitement  of  resentment  existed,  united  their  assaults  with  rancor  and 
bitterness.  In  many,  the  gratification  of  these  feelings  was  like  the  fury 
of  canine  Enadness.  They  bit  with  the  mordacity  of  the  viper;  but  the 
impassive  metal  rendered  retributive  justice  to  their  efforts,  and  the  good 
sense  of  mankind  reprobated  their  folly. 

It  is  a  delightful  emploj'ment  to  trace  through  the  stages  of  infantine  im- 
becility, the  growth  of  a  genius,  Avhich,  in  the  progressive  gradations  of  its 
maturity,  expands  like  the  majestic  branches  of  "  the  Pride  of  the  Forest," 
by  slow  degrees,  and  native  hardihood,  acquiring  strength  and  enlargement, 
and  becoming  at  last  a  sublime  emblem  of  independence,  of  fortitude,  and 
durability.  The  development  of  Dr.  Johnson's  mind,  is  a  subject,  from 
the  contemplation  of  which,  we  may  derive  much  pleasure  and  improve- 
ment. It  was  not  like  a  sicldy  and  tender  plant,  to  be  nursed  with  the  most 
anxious  solicitude.  It  possessed  a  native  vigor  and  energy,  which  neither 
the  disadvantages  of  an  unpropitious  culture  could  retard,  nor  the  blasts  of 
adverse  fortune  could  depress.  The  tempestuous  storms,  to  which  a  nature 
less  hardy  would  have  yielded,  it  bore  Avith  inflexible  firmness ;  and,  like  a 
rock  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean,  just  protending  above  the  waves,  by  which 
it  is  sometimes  overflowed,  and  at  the  refluence  of  the  billows,  Avith  haughty 
pride  becomes  again  visible,  it  Avithstood  the  conflict  of  contending  ele- 
ments. Undaunted  by  difficulties,  from  Avhich  a  mind  not  underserving  of 
respect  Avould  involuntarily  have  recoiled,  we  observe  it,  in  the  progress  of 
his  life,  stemming  the  current  of  adversity,  rather  in  the  pride  of  triumph, 
than  in  the  humiliation  of  despondence.  In  foUoAving  him  through  the 
dangers  and  hardships  Avhich  he  too  frequently  had  to  encounter,  we  may 
observe  hoAV  AA'onderfully  his  mind  gained  efficiency  by  resistance ;  and, 
like  an  impetuous  torrent,  overleaping  the  barriers  of  its  course,  Avitli  reno- 
vated strength  he  oA^erAvhelmed  opposition. 

The  ninth  year  of  the  eighteenth  century  gave  birth  to  the  man,  Avho  Avas 
afterwards  to  become  the  glory  of  his  country,  the  champion  of  his  lan- 
guage, and  the  honor  and  ornament  of  the  literature  of  his  age.  Among 
some  of  the  biographers  of  Dr.  Johnson,  we  discover  a  disposition  to  in- 
dulge in  tales  of  absurdity  ;  ascribing  to  him  a  jingle  of  boyish  rhymes  a£ 
the  age  of  three  years,  and  leading  readers  to  suppose  him  to  have  mounted 
his  Pegasus  before  he  was  entirely  out  of  the  cradle.  Little  appears  to 
have  been  knoAvn  respecting  his  early  childhood,  and  much  less  Avitli  rs 
gard  to  the  progress  he  made  in  learning  under  his  earliest  teachers,  both 


usually  carry  Avith  themselves  their  OAvn  refutation.    The  earliest  intelli 


stories  of  such  strange  precocity 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOJf.  383 

?t!;ffi.'?^°"T'''^i''^       niay  rely,  informs  tis,  that  Johnson,  while  at  the 
h  '    '^^    standing  scarcely  respectable.    Tlie  only  talent  bv 

nnimnrv  'rf -^^'f  "-iff^  wise  distinguished,  was  a  remarkable  tenacity  of 
memoiy.  llns,  it  will  be  seen,  was  of  the  utmost  importance  to  him.  Af- 
ter a  preparatory  course  in  classical  literature,  we  find  him,  at  the  age  of 
H  r^niip'n?'^'  commoner  in  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  assisting 

n.rfo  -n  f-^i"""^^  gentleman,  by  whose  aid  he  was  maintained.  The 

Int'  '^^^^^^^  "ito  notice,  was  the  translation  of 

of  1  -'""^  '^^^^^^^  possessed  no  other  poetical  merit  than 

Fun  nnn''°"i  •  C";c^i^^'^t^^i;ces  occurred,  which  deprived  him  of  the  only 
K?ninX  ''r'^'  he  rehed;  the  gentleman  unde^  his  charge  changing 
in  hhTpnfw";  "^^"^^"^  discouragements,  and  embarrassment! 

mIZ^U^^c^^  U^^^  compelled  to  qiiit  the  university,  where 

vonr.  '      ^  ^'"^^  interruption,  had  been  continued  nea/ly  three 

yeais.  Having  endeavored  to  obtain  the  means  of  living  bv  assistino-  at  a 
Shi^n  Iht^'^l    '  rehnquished  an  employn^enl,  whilh  yield 

he  had  Se/wiH  T'  '''''^  '^^'k  ^  ^^'^  i^^^^^^"  ^^"^  ^  disgust 

ne  •  d    hnf  o  7.  ^^^^  patronized.    It  was  at  this 

A  t?nn.l.?^nn  ^A^f'^^?  neccssary  for  the  support  of  his  life. 

A  translation  of  a  voyage  to  Abyssinia,  by  Jerome  Lobo  a  PortuanesP 
missionary,  it  is  believed,  was  the  first  lite'raiy  effor  by  which  L  atterf  pted 
tSl'l.r'''''''  IV^""  production,  JohT.son  disJoTeS  much  o??S 
Tn  X^fj^'fF  ^^hich  he  was  afterwards  distinguished. 

An  easy  flow  of  language,  with  a  strength  of  expression,  gave  a  dignity  to 
ha?mr  c^^^^^^^  not  naturally  possess.    ThI  flexibulty  Ld 

nSfo^mLf/  n  J.  f'f  '^^^'^^       importance  and  interest  to  the 

^  in  A?S^h  'i  7^7  T  1  '  subsequent  reputation,  it  was  much  indebted, 

info  T  nS         .  ^^^^^1  ^^^^^  Gamck,made  his  entry 

?onnlk    Ti'    f        H-}!''  ^^'^  extensive  theatre  of  the  me- 

tiopohs.    Ihe  former,  hitherto  the  child  of  disaster  and  disappontment 
detei-mmed  to  enlarge  the  sphere  in  which  to  crowd  his  wayf  and  both 
were  equally  undaunted  by  the  failure  of  their  schemes.         ^ ' 
..h\.h  .hl^""^     ?  of  Johnson  are  unable  to  fix  with  certainty  the  period  at 
Jl]t  jl  f  °f  ^^'^^  Though  there  appears  some 

7r-men  .t  l^^^^^  ^u""' ""'''''^^     London,  it  wal  doomed,  if 

^ht  nfc  Jr-^^  the  fortune  and  friend 

si  ip  of  Garnck,  who,  m  1747,  became  one  of  the  managers  of  Drury  Lane 
Jf  this'nVod^  to  produce  it  on  the  stage.    With  Respect  to  theVerits 

sL's    rnfn  ?  ^\l"ch  was  judiciously  'applied  to  Addi- 

cont^-ivan^e  nnd  Sr^"'^^^^  "  It  v;ants  much  of  that 

wdtS  for  th^^  "If  ""^^^^-stood  by  those  who  are  skilled  in 

Thnl^t  .-  i    f  §^^®^t  measure,  destitute  of  that  style,  and 

those  incidents,  which  would  render  it  interesting  to  an  audience  •  ajid 

col'^fallmwt'^^'^f.^^l^^"-  ''''  retirement  of  thTci^St  thin  The 
contused  assemblage  of  the  theatre.    The  language  is  dio-nified  and  forci 

Seasefw  h^'^hinT^f'  T'^/  Literary  nfei  wlo  aiV 

pleased  Avith  chil  philosophj^,"  and  "  unaflecting  eleo-ance,"  will  admire  it  • 
readers  of  taste  wiU  be  delighted  with  the  beauty  of  some  of  i ts  .enttait^^ 

W  obli?iot^'?'  '''T^''  ^^-'^'^^  lon^ 

traS^dv  fron       T  >  ""'^'"^  '''^y      did  not  produce  another 

pSln  .Wn.  o  V^^'?'^'^  ^'^P^^^d'             Johnson  writes  tragedy, 

ITen  h,  fZl  hT    d^^^'^^^f  ?'^rs."    Johnson  himself  appears  to  have 

first  nnrlT  1  ^IT""  ^''^^^  °f  sucl^  ^  remark,  as  this  was  his 

never^fter  Si4f ''P'-  ^'"^     ^'^^                  ^^S^^^^'  ^'^'^'^  ^^^^ 

tion  ofjVipnJ^t^K^^'Q'!-^"?  ^'^l^^  f  invoking  his  muse,  in  an  imita 
has  been  if  1  ^''H""^'  ''^^'^^  ^«  ^^^^  ^^^^^  of  London."  It 
Sala.e  Vho-  l^^^^  T'^'"  ^^^^  T^'^^^^'  '^^^Idresses  his  friend 
oavage,  who.e  Lte  he  nxbseqently  wote,  and  Avith  whom  he  had  previously 


S84 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


passed  many  of  his  dissipated  hours.  Savage  a  man  of  veiy  great 
genius,  but  of  an  irregular  and  dissipated  life,  from  the  contaminatiou  of 
which,  nothing  but  good  principles,  deep  rooted,  which  he  had  eaiiy  im- 
bibed, could  have  preserved  the  morals  of  Johnson. 

If  not  among  the  most  important  of  his  efforts,  this  poem,  and  "  The 
Vanity  of  Human  Wishes,"  another  similar  to  it,  in  imitation  of  the  Tenth 
Satire  of  Juvenal,  may  be  esteemed  among  his  most  happy  attempts.  The 
spirit  and  energy  with  Avhich  he  wrote,  fully  equals  the  poignancy  of  the 
Roman  satirist.  Juvenal  and  Johnson  were  both  engaged  in  the  cause  of 
virtue,  and  the  poetic  fire  and  sarcastic  severity  of  the  imitation  is  well 
worthy  of  the  original.  The  lines  of  the  English  author  flow  with  all  that 
j^race  and  dignity  with  which  the  Latin  poet  abounds.  That  he  should 
have  written  with  the  same  ardor  and  animation,  is  natural ;  and  the  accu 
satorial  strain  of  invective  in  which  he  writes,  does  ample  justice  to  the 
censorial  department  of  the  satirist.  It  is  related  that  Mr.  Pope,  after  read 
ing  his  London,"  observed,  in  allusion  to  the  passage  from  Terence,  which 
was  once  applied  to  Milton,  "  Ubi,  ubi  est,  diu  celari  non  potest,"  — a  re 
mark  which  proved  truly  prophetic. 

It  is  a  melancholy  reflection,  that  the  superior  talents  of  this  eminent 
writer,  at  the  age  of  thirty,  were  scarcely  able  to  provide  him  with  an  in 
come  adequate"  to  his  wants.    Being  bred  to  no  profession,  h'fe  was  com 
pelled  to  resort  to  his  pen  as  a  last  resource.    Many  of  his  schemes  in  pub 
lication  failed  for  want  of  encouragement,  and  others,  in  which  he  succeed 
ed,  proved  of  little  benefit  to  him.    We  find  some  of  his  fugitive  pieces  at 
this  time  appearing  in  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine,"  and  among  them 
several  very  masterly  touches  in  biographical  delineation.    In  biography, 
Johnson  peculiarly  excelled.    The  "Lives  of  the  Poets,"  which  he  at  a 
much  later  period  sent  into  the  world,  will  remain  a  lasting  monument  of 
his  genius,  and  critical  sagacity.    Few  perhaps,  more  feelingly  illustrated 
Juvenal's  axiom, 

"  Hand  facile  emergunt,  quorum  virtutibus  obstat 
Res  angusta  domi. ' ' 

But  the  independence  of  his  spirit,  and  the  native  energy  of  his  mind,  reu 
dered  him  little  sensible  to  the  sombre  shades  by  which  fortune  had  sui 
rounded  him. 

His  parliamentary  speeches,  which  appeared  about  this  time,  are  a  mod 
of  purity  of  diction,  copiousness  of  language,  and  flowing  eloquence.  In 
reflecting  how  scanty  were  the  materials  from  which  they  were  written,  our 
surprise  and  admiration  are  equally  excited.  His  biographers  relate,  that 
frequently  he  was  only  informed  who  were  the  speakers,  the  order  in  which 
they  spoke,  and  the  sides  they  took.  At  best,  the  notes  which  were  pro  - 
cured were  of  but  little  use  to  him ;  and  it  is  well  known,  he  was  but  once 
in  Parliament-house  for  this  purpose.  We  are  charmed  with  the  dignity 
and  energy  which  these  speeches  possess.  Without  disparagement,  some  of 
them  may  be  compared  to  the  ancient  specimens  of  the  Grecian  and'Roman 
orators.  In  force  of  style,  harmony  of  diction,  and  copiousness  of  expres- 
Eion,  they  equal  any  instances  of  ancient  or  modern  eloquence. 

There  is  no  view  in  which  Johnson  appeax-s  less  advantageous  than  as  a 
political  writer.  His  Avarmest  friends  are  ready  to  acknowledge,  that  his 
reputation  would  have  suffered  no  loss,  had  he  never  meddled  with  politics. 
His  arguments,  indeed,  were  ingenious  ;  but  strong  prejudices  and  partiali 
ties  gave  to  his  pen  a  direction  which  his  understanding  could  not  approve, 
and,  in  moments  of  cooler  reflection,  his  conscience  must  have  condemned. 
With  the  sentiments  of  a  warm  tory  and  rigid  high-churchman,  his  charac 
ter  was  frequently  exposed  to  much  severity  of  aspersion  ;  but,  possessed 
with  the  genius  and  reputation  of  the  greatest  scholar  of  his  age,  and  the 
virtues  of  a  man,  over  whom  morality  and  religion  liad  much  influence,  he 
might  well  defy  the  attacks  of  his  enemies. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  3g5 

Buffer  judgtiient  to  examine  or  reduce" '    '      '"^       P'"^"^^  ^^^^ 

i<  or  depth  of  moral  reflection,  the  "Hamblerq"  nf  ToT.,,. 
be  preeminent.    The  ethics  of  thp  nn^.-«i.To  ^  .  Johnson  must  ever 

uable  mass  of  moral  inSiuct^on  a^d  i^  v.,-f''  ""^^  '^^'^^  ^  val 
ciples  of  the  purest  philoS^  for  the  prin 

Of  virtue.  It  was  not  probX  that  the  ft^^^^  blended  with  the  loveliness 
.ould  escape  Ms  acute^pettlU'^^^^^^^ 

"  T^,?l^^?  wl^^®'  ^^«o<^        as  it  flies. 
And  catch  the  manners  living  as  they  me. ' ' 

prone  to  look  upon  the  darkp^f  ^  , 

"Idler,"  and  those  of  the  "  AdveiSurer^' wrin! 7i?f    P'^  P'^P^''" 

atttiptefmeS^  admired  writers,  who 

The  most  successful  writer™  no  l^orftban  Ste  ?h?r  "^^""ri- 
he  has  discovered  on  classic  ^ound  and  disnW  f^lhl   tne  flowers  which 
ance  with  its  productions.    He  mkrhear  hfs^mind  w^^^^^ 
which  the  poets  of  antiquity  have  writtem    He  mavimSh  ^'  'P'?-  ^^^5 

nty,  It  may  satelv  be  r»resnmflfl  wnni^i  ^r,..^  y„,-n,u_i .  ^p;<-..»  in, 


*^as  con 


cause  .n  wUoh  he  engaged.   The  recaSrhT^ltSSll^^ 


386 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


who  had  thus  inveigled  him  into  this  infamous  plan,  made  honorable  amends 

to  the  injured  character  of  the  poet.  That  he  had  been  made  a  dupe  to 
the  duplicity  of  the  enemy  of  Milton,  could,  in  his  own  feelings,  be  but 
little  alleviated  bv  an  acknowledgment  of  his  crime.  As  he  harboured  no 
malevolence  of  feeling  towards  this  sublime  writer,  posterity  have  little  o. 
which  to  accuse  him ;  as  the  best  men  may  at  times  be  deceived,  espe- 
cially when  the  influence  of  party  feehngs  fosters  their  prejudices,  and 
gives  to  the  judgment,  for  a  moment,  a  bias,  which  calm  reflection,  and 
dispassionate  examination,  afterwards  perceives,  acknowledges,  and  cor- 

His  "  English  Dictionary"  will  long  remain  a  lasting  reccrd  of  the  pow- 
erful mind  of  Dr.  Johnson.  By  it,  he  has  fixed  the  standard  of  our  lan- 
guage, and,  witltthe  most  indefatigable  labor  and  acuteness,  given  precision 
to  the  meaning  of  our  words,  which,  hitherto,  had  been  too  much  neglected 
by  the  lexicographers  who  preceded  him.  He  has  pruned  of  their  excres- 
cences the  indeterminate  signification  of  many  terms,  and  placed  m  appro- 
priate gradations  the  fluctuating  import  of  many  expressions.  Until  his 
time  there  had  been  no  author  upon  whose  judgment  the  world  seemed 
implicitly  to  relv ;  and  time  has  since  proved,  that  the  stupendous  labor, 
and  powerful  talents  of  Johnson  have  left  nothing  for  succeeding  lexico- 
graphers to  do  in  defining  the  English  language.  _ 

His  benevolent  feelings  often  engaged  him  in  the  service  ot  many  tor 
whom  he  had  little  friendship,  and  who  could  lay  no  claim  to  the  assistance 
of  his  pen.  The  number  of  dedications,  prologues,  and  recommendatory 
eff-usions  which  issued  from  it,  in  behalf  of  indigent  merit  or  unaspiring 
modesty,  at  once  illustrates  the  kindness  of  his  heart,  and  the  disinter^ 
edness  of  his  motives.  ^         ^,      ,  • 

During  a  season,  in  which  his  mind  was  oppressed  wfth  the  gloomy  re- 
flections of  affliction,  occasioned  by  the  loss  of  his  aged  mother,  to  whom 
he  was  tenderly  and  aff'ectionately  attached,  it  is  related,  that  he  wrote  his 
"  Rasselas."  this  elegant  specimen  of  Oriental  ir/^gery,  we  are  told,  was 
written  during  the  evenings  of  a  single  week,  to  ejable  him  to  detray  the 
funeKaJ  expenses  of  his  deceased  parent.  Perhaps  there  is  no  prosaic  eflu- 
sioidiPwhich  the  exuberance  and  harmony  of  our  language  has  been  more 
artMly  combined,  or  more  fully  displayed.  It  is  here  that  he  discovers 
those  surprising  powers  of  imagination,  which  were  the  astonishment  and 
admiration  of  mankind.  Though  the  strain  of  moralizing  reflection,  which 
pervades  the  whole  story,  seems  to  partake  of  the  gloomy  shades  which  oc 
casionally  overshadowed  his  mind,  it  may  yet  be  questioned,  it  the  world 
will  again  soon  be  favored  with  a  trifle,  from  any  pen,,  m  which  it  may  be, 
at  the  same  tii»e,  more  delighted  and  improved. 

In  the  poetry  of  Dr.  Johnson,  if  we  do  not  discover  the  harmony  which 
delights  a  musical  ear,  we  are  fully  compensated  by  an  energy  of  expres- 
sion! a  lofty  style,  and  a  critical  elegance  of  diction.  The  majesty  ot  his 
numbers  resembles  the  tones  of  a  powerful  instrument,  not  discordant  by 
the  strength  of  their  parts.  His  versification  cannot  boast  of  an  unbroken 
melodv,  but  his  measures  flow  like  the  slow  and  solemn  progress  of  a 
mightV  river,  rather  than  like  the  graceful  glidings  of  a  sliaUow  stream.  It 
he  does  not  possess  the  smoothness  of  poetical  numbers,  the  ear  is  not  ta- 
ticrued  by  the  sameness  of  his  style  ;  and  we  may  continue  to  be  delighted 
w!th  the  variety  and  dignity  of  his  expressions,  Avhen  we  should  be  glad  tc. 
be  relieved  from  the  monotonous  harmony  of  poets  of  more  musical  ears. 

Johnson  had  for  some  time  been  solicited  by  his  bookseller  to  undertake 
the  editorial  department  in  a  splendid  edition  of  the  British  Poets,  ihis 
was  the  last  great  effort  of  his  mind.  His  reputation  needed  not,  at  thi3 
period,  an  accession  to  giv^ permanency  to  his  fame;  yet  another  laure. 
was  added  to  grace  his  brow,  .    i  .  4.  ^i 

This  stupendous  publication,  which  was  to  be  comprised  m  seventy  vol- 
umes, ui  the  course  of  a  few  years  was  ofl"er0d  to  the  world,  with  the  lives 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  387 
t  at  the  philosophical  talents  of  this  great  man  were  fully  develonet     If  » 

msmma 

p^L"ee^j;tr„^?ph,Ht;Lt5=Sf 

mankind.  Few  writers  hnvP  nS..^  astonishment  and  admiration  of 
these  pieces.    Though  entirely  d  Z^^^^^  competition  with 

ness  of  thouo-ht  nurltv  of  Hn^n^  '"''J^^*'        same  close- 

in  each  are  eqSalircl^spi^uous     ke^^^^^^  ^^^^"^^^      ^^yle,  . 

merits  of  Shalspeire  bee^g^ve^^  t^Z  l^orM^^^^^ 

safe  to  yield  implicit  credence  Th?  fvn?K  '  ^'''^  it  would  have  been 
derstoodhim.  P  e  threw  w2rnnon  nn,  t?5  h^^^^  ''''^  perfectly  un 
before  been  exposed  to  vi^^w  tT,  J^  ^.^^^^^^t^^'  ^'hich  had  never 

his  author  in  an  asDLrwT,ich  nrf  •  ^"^^^^igation  enabled  Johnson  to  see 
noticed,  orneveiV:?  h  latcit^'^^^^^^^^^  ^'^^  fi^^er  never 

ances  with  the  rules  which  tfe  ge^nius  of  antinn^v  ^Tf^v"''  P'^™ 
lustrated,  and  not  with  the  nreif  dSp.  of  rS?i^  ^  ^'^"^  discovered  and  il 
He  gave  the  most  exXd  c^mTii  i  f-  1"°^^!''?  arrogance  and  imbecility 
ffence  rPn  Wp  i  f^^T  k  •  ^^'^"^endation  to  a  mind,  whose  intuitive  intelii 
ftudy,StuTa'sltn?^^^^^  of  knowledge,  and  the  cult^e  of 

should  place  Lt  H?tirv?lu?nn^^^^^  operations;  and,  though  mankind 
i^tly  ^el  i^debted^\&e~^e^^^^^  ^^7 


388 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 


not  a  matter  of  wonder,  that  the  exquisitely  beautiful  preface  to  the  edition 
of  Shakspeare's  plays,  should  lay  claim  to  such  superlative  merit.  Wheth- 
er Ave  regard  the  abundance  and  classical  selection  of  its  allusions,  the  ac 
curacy  and  justice  of  the  criticisms,  or  its  just  appreciation  of  the  excel- 
lences and  defects  of  the  poet,  it  is  equally  the  subject  of  admiration. 

The  literary  character  of  Dr.  Johnson,  may,  perhaps,  receive  illustration 
by  examining  his  life,  as  well  as  by  criticising  his  writings.   That  prejudice 
should  have  found  no  place  in  a  mind  of  such  astonishing  energy,  would 
seem  as  wonderful  as  it  must  have  been  rare.  It  would  seem  equally  strange, 
if  his  antipathies  were  not  sometimes  manifested  in  the  heat  of  passion,  or  in 
the  ardor  of  debate.   The  Scotch  and  Dissenters,  the  scholars  of  Cambridge 
and  the  Whigs,  were  often  mentioned  with  more  acrimony  than  discretion. 
There  was,  perhaps,  no  man  who  more  strenuously  advocated  the  principles 
of  subordination,  and  few  who  displayed  them  less  in  practice.   The  tempers 
of  men  are  more  under  the  influence  of  external  circumstances  than  moral 
writers  in  general  are  disposed  to  allow.    Dr  Johnson  too  severely  felt  the 
weight  of  disappointment  and  penury  in  his  early  years.   At  a  later  period, 
he  was  gratified  by  applause  and  universal  adulation.   Can  it  be  wonderful, 
then,  that,  with  the  strong  feelings  of  vigorous  passions,  and  the  common 
failings  of  human  nature,  he  should,  at  times,  be  carried  away  in  conversa- 
tion, and  in  hasty  compositions,  farther  than  his  maturer  judgment  would 
sanction,  or  the  better  feelings  of  his  heart  approve.    There  were  few  men 
whose  colloquial  powers  could  give  more  delight  to  those  around  him, 
and  scarcely  another  whose  insulted  feelings  were  more  awfully  dreaded. 
Though  he  might  not  pass  for  a  scientific  scholar,  the  world  can  have  little 
reason  to  doubt  the  extent  of  Ijis  learning,  or  the  unbounded  range  of  his 
information.    His  desultory  manner  of  reading  made  his  knowledge  more 
comprehensive  than  minute;  and  his  quickness  of  perception  gave  him  an 
astonishing  facility  in  grasping  the  ideas  of  an  author  without  tiring  his 
patience  by  perusing  a  whole  book.    His  extraordinary  powers  of  under- 
Btanding  were  much  cultivated  by  study,  and  still  more  by  reflection.  Ihe 
accuracy  of  his  observations,  and  the  justness  of  his  remarks,  were  the 
result  of  mature  deliberation  and  depth  of  meditation,  before  he  uttered  his 
fientimeuts;  and  his  memory  furnished  him  with  an  inexhaustible  fund, 
from  which  his  reasonings  Avere  assisted  and  enforced.    The  aptness  of  his 
illustrations  was  a  strong  evidence  of  the  sagacity  of  his  perceptions,  and 
the  soundness  of  his  judgment.    His  observations  received  additional 
weight  from  the  loudness  of  his  voice,  and  the  solemnity  with  which  they 
were  delivered.    The  sophistry  of  an  antagonist  always  fell  a  prey  to  the 
piercing  glance  of  his  penetration;  and  he  became  the  more  elated  by 
triumph  Avhen  his  opponents  had  been  most  decided.   The  great  originality 
which  appeared  in  his  writings,  resulted  from  an  activity  of  mmd,  which 
habit  had  accustomed  to  reason  with  precision.    His  conceptions  ot  things 
sprano-  not  from  idle  thought  or  indolent  reflection,  but  from  the  keen  en 
ergies°of  a  vi'rorous  intellect,  assisted  b  v  the  eff'orts  of  a  soaring  imagination. 
His  conversation  Avas  striking,  interesting,  and  instructive,  and  required  no 
exeitiou  to  be  understood,  from  the  perspicuity  and  force  of  his  remarks; 
and  his  zeal  for  the  interests  of  religion  and  virtue  was  often  manifested  in 
his  discourse.    He  Avas  expert  at  argumentation,  and  the  schools  ot  decla^ 
mation  could  not  boast  of  a  more  subtle  reasoner,  or  a  more  artful  sophist, 
when  his  side  was  a  bad  one;  for  he  often  disputed  as  much  for  the  sake 
of  victory  as  of  truth.    His  answers  Avere  so  powerful,  that  tew  dared  to 
engage  Avith  him.    Universal  submission,  it  is  likely,  gave  an  apparent 
dogmatism  which  he  otherwise  might  not  have  possessed.    If  there  was  an 
aspect  of  harsh  seA-erity  in  his  retorts,  it  should  be  remembered,  how  fre 
quentlv  they  were  provoked  by  the  insults  of  impertinence  and  the  conceit  ot 
Ignorance.   The  specious  garb  of  dissimulation  he  despised.   A  noble  spirit 
of  indepedence  actuated  his  demeanor.    He  did  not  violate  the  integrity  of 
his  feeUngs  by  stooping  to  gratify  the  pride  of  rank,  when  unaccompanied 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


389 


by  a  superiority  of  intellect  commensurate  Avith  its  dignity.  His  utter 
abhorrence  of  flattery  and  adulation  lost  him  that  patronage  of  the  great, 
which  he  otherwise  might  probably  sooner  have  acquired ;  and  he  rose  to 
eminence  rather  by  the  unassisted  efforts  of  his  own  genius,  than  the  en- 
couragements of  the  rich  and  the  learned.  He  was  little  inde//ted  to  the 
assistance  of  his  friends  for  his  great  reputation.  The  irresistible  energy  of 
his  character  carried  him  through  all  his  difficulties  with  an  unbroken  spirit, 
and  an  unblemished  fame.  If  he  paid  not  his  court  to  tlie  noble,  it  was  not 
trom  disrespect  to  the  subordinations  of  rank  in  society,  but  a  dishke  to  the 
arts  of  dissimulation,  and  an  aversion  to  the  degradation  of  science  at  the 
shnne  of  patronage.  His  sarcastic  letter  to  the  Eari  of  Chesterfield  is  a 
noble  specimen  of  his  independence  of  spirit,  and  his  contempt  of  the  ser 
vile  arts  of  adulation.  It  is  a  feeling  exposition  of  the  hardships  he  had 
endured,  until  royal  munificence  placed  him  beyond  the  boundaries  of 
want,  and  smoothed  his  descent  to  the  grave. 

His  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language,  in  comparison  with  his  acquaint 
ance  with  the  Latin,  was  supei-ficial.  In  his  eariy  years,  he  had  devoted 
himself  so  closely  to  the  study  of  the  ancient  poets,  that  it  may  be  ques- 
tioned, it  his  famiharity  with  them  in  his  own  times  could  find  a  superior 
decisive  denunciations  against  the  genuineness  of  Ossian's  poems, 
created  him  many  opponents,  upon  a  subject,  respecting  which,  "  truth  had 
never  been  established,  or  fallacy  detected." 

It  is  not  a  little  strange,  that,  in  many  instances,  the  biographers  of 
Johnson  have  appeared  hke  enemies.  It  may,  however,  be  observed,  that 
tew  men  could  have  stood  the  ordeal  to  which  the  minuteness  of  BosweU 
exposed  him,  with  so  much  honor  to  the  reputation  of  their  heart  and  their 
head.  This  mighty  Caliban  of  literature  is  here  stripped  of  every  disguise, 
and  held  up  to  public  view.  Though  the  worid  has  been  delighted  and 
improved  by  the  record  of  his  converation,  in  which  his  learning,  his  genius, 
™^sg"ised  sentiments  have  so  conspicuously  shone  forth,  it  cannot 
but  be  alJwwed,  that  it  is  informed  of  much,  which  it  was  not  important 
and,  perhaps,  was  not  proper  for  it  to  know ;  and  that  the  coloring  which 
the  painter  has  given  to  his  portrait,  will  admit  of  many  different  shades, 
Irom  which  the  partiality  of  friendship  should  have  guarded  his  pencil.  It 
is  here,  however,  that  we  may  trace  the  incredible  vastness  of  an  intellect, 
Uterature  S^oiy  of  liis  country,  and  the  pride  of  English 

_  We_  may  contemplate  the  gigantic  powers  of  Johnson's  mind  with  feel- 
ings similar  to  those  sublime,  emotions  with  which  we  view  the  boundless 
expanse  of  the  ocean,  fathomless  to  human  measurement,  and  whose  ca 
pacity  exceeds  our  conception.   In  his  writings  appears  more  conspicuously 
than  m  his  conversation  the  compass  and  extent  of  his  understanding.  His 
taculties  were  vigorous,  his  curiosity  and  avidity  for  knowledge  insatiable 
and  unlimited,  his  mind  vehement  and  ardent,  the  combinations  of  his 
lancy  various  and  original,  and  his  imagination  neither  clouded  or  depress- 
ed by  the  discipline  of  study,  or  the  misfortunes  of  life.    His  readers  are 
delighted  and  astonished  at  the  wonderful  beauty  of  his  conceptions,  and 
the  depth  of  reflection  which  his  opinions  discover.    In  his  style  he  is  di-- 
mfied  and  forcible,  m  his  language  elegant  and  copious.    He  gives  to  eveiT 
word  Its  true  meaning,  and  its  illustrative  purport.    His  epithets  are  used 
with  judgment  and  discrimination.   Every  thing  which  he  says  has  a  deter- 
mmate  significancy,_and  liis  words  convey  no  more  than  the  import  of  his 
conceptions.    It  he  introduces  hard  words,  their  peculiar  adaptation  to  his 
meaning  should  atone  for  his  grandiloquism.   It  should  also  be  remembered, 
tnat  Cicero  introduced  Greek  terms,  when  treating  upon  learned  subjects 
to  supply  the  deficiency  of  the  Roman  language,  and  that  the  "  great  and 
comprehensive  conceptions  of  Johnson  could  not  easily  be  expressed  bv 
common  words."  ^  x  j 

Should  it  be  thought  that  the  styie'of  this  karaed  author  has  injured  om 
33* 


390 


AIDS  TO'  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


lanffuage,  he  must  have  committed  this  injury  by  making  it  more  subor 
dinate  to  grammatical  rules.  Foreigners  and  future  generations  will  be 
more  capable  of  understanding  it,  since  he  has  excluded  expressions  which 
are  only  to  be  found  in  colloquial  intercourse  and  vulgar  phraseology. 
From  his  example,  men  may  learn  to  give  to  their  style  energy,  perspicuity, 
and  elegance.  They  may  acquire  a  habit  of  close  thinking,  and  become 
accustomed  to  express  their  ideas  with  force  and  precision. 

His  political  writings  will  be  read  and  admired  only  for  the  dignity  and 
enero-y  of  their  style.  His  compositions  are  a  most  valuable  addition  to  the 
literature  of  his  country,  and  will  confer  a  lasting  reputation  on  his  name. 
They  are  replete  Avith  "  useful  instruction,  and  elegant  entertainment,"  and 
bv  perusing  them,  mankind  may  advance  in  knowledge  and  virtue.  _  Lhe 
efforts  of  his  mind  discover  a  life  of  study  and  meditation.  His  writings 
displav  a  genius  cultivated  with  industry,  and  quickened  by  exertion.  His 
multifarious  productions  are  an  honor  to  the  English  nation  ;  and  his  answer 
to  his  sovereign  might  more  fairly  be  allowed,  "  that  he  had  written  his 
Bhare,"  if  he  had  not  written  so  well.  His  mind  has  been  laid  open  to  the 
pubUc  in  his  printed  works,  without  "  reservation  or  disguise  ;  "  and,  with 
all  his  faults  and  failings,  he  is  still  the  admiration  of  mankind. 


XCVII. 

ON  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  A  SERMON.* 

On  the  Choice  of  Texts. 

There  are,  in  general,  five  parts  of  a  sermon:  the  exordium,  the  con 
nexion,the  division,  the  discussion,  and  the  application  ;  but  as  connexion 
and  division  are  parts  which  ought  to  be  extremely  short,  we  can  piopeily 
reckon  onlv  three  parts  :  exordium,  discussion,  and  apphcation.  However, 
we  will  just  take  notice  of  connexion  and  division  after  we  have  spoken  a 
Httle  on  the  choice  of  texts,  and  a  few  general  rules  of  discussing  them. 

1.  Never  choose  such  texts  as  have  not  complete  sense  ;  for  only  imper 
tinent  and  foolish  people  will  attempt  to  preach  from  one  or  two  words 

'''I^^^'^^Im^  bave  a  complete  sense  of  t^e-selves  must  be 
taken,  but  they  must  also  include  the  complete  sense  of  the  wnter  whose 
words  they  are  ;  for  it  is  his  language,  and  they  are  his  sentiments  which 
vou  explain,  For  example,  should  you  take  these  words  of  2  Coi.  1 .  d. 
^  Blessed  be  God,  the  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  Father  of  mer- 
ciS,  and  the  God  of  all  comfort,"  and  stop  here,  you  wil  mclude  a  com- 
p  e  ;  sense  ;  but  it  would  not  be  the  Apostle's  sense  Should  you  f  farther 
Snd  add,  "  who  comforteth  us  in  all  our  tribulation, '  it  would  not  then  be 
the  complete  sense  of  St.  Paul,  nor  would  his  meaning  be  wholly  taken  in 
uSess  vou  went  to  the  end  of  the  fourth  verse.  When  the  complete  sense 
of  he  sacked  writer  is  taken,  you  may  stop  ;  for  there  are  few  texts  in  Scrip- 
ture which  do  not  afford  matter  sufficient  for  a  sermon,  and  it  is  equally  in- 
convenient to  take  too  much  text  or  too  httle;  both  extremes  must  be 
avoided.  , 

*  Thpse  directions  and  remarks  are  taken  from  Hannam's  "  Pulpit  Assistant."  Th« 
iCnlSi^^t^ollll^cli  aid  from  Gresley'B  "  Treatise  on  Preaclnng." 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


391 


hmeral  rules  of  sermons.  1.  A  sermon  should  cleavly  and  purely  ex- 
plam  a  text,  make  the  senss  easily^  to  be  comprehended,  and  place  things 
before  the  people's  eyes,  so  that  th*eymay  be  understood  without  difficulty. 
This  rule  condemns  embarrassment  and  obscurity,  the  most  disagreeable 
thing  in  t-ie  world  in  a  gospel  pulpit.  It  ought  to  be  remembered,  that  the 
greatest  part  of  the  hearers  are  simple  people,  whose  profit,  however,  must 
be  aimed  at  in  preaching :  but  it  is  impossible  to  edify  them,  unless  you  be 
very  clear.  Bishop  Burnett  says,  "  a  preacher  is  to  fancy  himself  as  in  the 
room  of  the  most  unlearned  man  in  the  whole  parish,  and  must  therefore 
put  such  parts  of  his  discourses  as  he  would  have  all  understand,  in  so  plain 
a  form  of  words,  that  it  may  not  be  beyond  the  meanest  of  them.  This  he 
will  certainly  study  to  do,  if  his  desire  be  to  edify  them,  rather  than  to  make 
them  admire  himself  as  a  learned  and  high  spoken  man." 

2.  A  sermon  must  give  the  entire  sense  of  the  whole  text,  in  order  to 
which  it  must  be  considered  in  eveiy  view.  This  rule  condemns  dry  and 
Darren  explications,  wherein  the  preacher  discovei-s  neither  study  nor  in- 
vention, and  leaves  unsaid  a  great  number  of  beautiful  things  with  which 
his  text  might  have  furnished  him.  In  matters  of  religion  and  piety,  not  to 
edify  much  is  to  destroy  much  ;  and  a  sermon  cold  and  poor  will  do  more 
mischief  in  an  hour,  than  a  hundred  rich  sermons  can  do  good. 

3.  The  preacher  must  be  wise,  in  opposition  to  those  impertinent  people 
who  utter  jests,  comical  comparisons,  quirks,  and  extravagances  ;  sober,  in 
opposition  to  those  rash  spirits  who  would  penetrate  all,  and  cm-iously  dive 
mto  mysteries  beyond  the  bounds  of  modesty;  chaste,  in  opposition  to 
those  bold  and  imprudent  geniuses  who  are  not  ashamed  of  saying  many 
things  which  produce  unclean  ideas  in  the  mind. 

4.  A  preacher  must  be  simple  and  grave.  Simple,  speaking  things  of 
good  natural  sense,  without  metaphysical  speculations  ;  grave,  because  all 
Borts  of  vulgar  and  proverbial  sayings  ought  to  be  avoided.  The  pulpit  is 
the  seat  of  good  natural  sense,  and  the  good  sense  of  good  men. 

5.  The  understanding  must  be  informed,  but  in  a  manner,  however, 
which  affects  the  heart ;  either  to  comfort  the  hearers,  or  to  excite  them  to 
acts  of  piety,  repentance,  or  holiness. 

6.  One  of  the  most  important  precepts  for  the  discussion  of  a  text,  and 
the  composition  of  a  sermon,  is,  above  all  things,  to  avoid  excess  :  — 

1.  There  must  not  be  too  much  genius.  I  mean,  not  too  many  brilliant, 
Bparkhng,  and  shining  things:  for  they  would  produce  very  bad  effects. 
The  auditor  will  never  fail  to  say,  "  The  man  preaches  himself,  aims  to  dis 
play  his  genius,  and  is  not  animated  by  the  spirit  of  God,  but  by  that  of 
the  world." 

2.  A_  Sermon  must  not  be  overcharged  with  doctrine,  because  the  hearers' 
memories  cannot  retain  it  all ;  and  by  aiming  to  keep  all,  they  will  lose 
an.    Take  care,  then,  not  to  charge  your  sei-mon  with  too  much  matter. 

3.  Care  must  also  be  taken  never  to  strain  any  particular  part,  either  m 
attempting  to  exhaust  it,  or  to  penetrate  too  far  into  it.  Frequently  in  at 
tempting  it,  you  will  distil  the  subject  till  it  evaporates. 

4.  Figures  must  not  be  overstrained.  This  is  done  by  stretching  meta 
phor  mto  allegory,  or  by  carrying  a  parallel  too  far.  A  metaphor  is  changed 
mto  an  allegory  when  a  number  of  things  are  heaped  up,  which  agree  to 
the  subject  m  keeping  close  to  the  metaphor.  Allegories  may  sometimes 
be  used  very  agreeably :  but  they  must  not  be  strained:  that  is,  all  that 
can  be  said  of  them  must  not  be  said. 

5.  Eeasonirg  must  not  be  can-ied  too  far.  This  may  be  done  many 
ways  ;  either  by  long  trains  of  reasons,  composed  of  a  number  of  proposi 
tions  chained  together,  or  principles  and  consequences,  whiob  way  of  rea 
sonmg  IS  embarrassing  and  painful  to  the  auditor.  The  mind  of  man  loves 
to  be  conducted  in  a  more  smooth  and  easy  way. 

Of  connexion.  The  connexion  is  the  relation  of  your  text  to  the  foreo-o 
ing  or  following  verses.  To  find  this,  consider  the  scope  of  the  discourse 
and  consult  commentators  ;  particularly  exercise  your  own  good  sense 


392 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


"When  tiae  coherence  will  furnish  any  agreeable  considerations  for  the 

illustrations  of  the  text,  they  must  be  put  in  the  discussion  ;  and  they  will 
very  often  happen.  Sometimes,  also,  you  may  draw  thence  an  exordium  : 
in  such  a  case,  the  exordium  and  connexion  will  be  confounded  together. 

Of  division.  Division  in  general  ought  to  be  restrained  to  a  small  num 
ber  of  parts  ;  they  should  never  exceed  four  or  five  at  the  most ;  the  most 
admired  sermons" have  only  two  or  three  parts. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  divisions  which  Ave  may  very  properly  make;  the 
first,  which  is  the  most  common,  is  the  division  of  the  text  into  its  parts 
the  other  is  of  the  discourse,  or  sermon  itself,  which  is  made  on  the  text. 

1.  This  method  is  proper  when  a  prophecy  of  the  Old  Testament  is 
handled ;  for,  generally,  the  understanding  of  these  prophecies  depends  on 
many  general  considerations,  which,  by  exposing  and  refuting  false  senses, 
open  a  way  to  the  true  explication. 

2.  This  method  is  also  proper  on  a  text  taken  from  a  dispute,  the  under 
standing  of  which  must  depend  on  the  state  of  the  question,  the  hypothesis 
of  adversaries,  and  the  principles  of  the  inspu-ed  writers.  All  these  lights 
are  previously  necessary-,  and  they  can  only  be  given  by  general  considera 
tions  ;  for  example,  Eom.  iii.  28.  "  AVe  conclude  that  a  man  is  justified 
by  faith  v/ithout  the  deeds  of  the  law."  Some  general  considerations 
must  precede,  which  clear  up  the  state  of  the  question  between  St.  Paul 
and  the  Jews,  touching  justification,  which  mark  the  hypothesis  of  the  Jews 
upon  that  subject,  and  which  discover  the  true  principle  which  St.  Paul 
would  establish ;  so  that,  in  the  end,  the  text  may  be  clearly  understood. 

3.  This  method  also  is  proper  in  a  conclusion  drawn  from  a  long  preced 
mo-  discourse  ;  as  for  example,  Rom.  v.  1.  "  Therefore  being  justified  by 
fafth,  we  have  peace  with  God,  through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  The  dis 
course  must  be  divided  into  two  parts ;  the  first  consistmg  of  some  general 
considerations  on  the  doctrine  of  justification,  which  St.  Paul  establishes 
in  the  preceding  chapters  ;  and  the  second  of  his  conclusion,  that,  being 
thus  iustified,  we  have  peace  A\-ith  God,  &c. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  first  verse  of  the  eighth  of  Eomans,  There 
is.  therefore,  now  no  condemnation,"  &c.,  for  it  is  a  consequence  drawn 
from  what  he  had  been  establishing  before. 

4.  The  same  method  is  proper  for  texts  which  are  quoted  m  the  iSew 
Testament  from  the  Old.  You  must  prove  by  general  considerations  that 
the  text  is  properly  produced,  and  then  you  may  come  clearly  to  its  expli- 
cation. Of  this  kind  are  Hebrews  i.  5,  6.  "  I  will  be  to  him  a  Father,"  &c 
"  One  in  a  certain  place  testified,"  &c.,  ii.  6.  "  Wherefore  as  the  Holy 
Ghost  saith,"  &c.,  iii.  7.  There  are  many  passages  of  this  kind  m  the  New 
Testament.  ^  , 

5.  In  this  class  must  be  placed  divisions  into  different  regards,  or  ditter 
ent  views.  These,  to  speak  properly,  are  not  divisions  of  a  text  into  its 
parts,  but  rather  different  applications  which  are  made  of  the  same  texts  to 
divers  subjects.  Typical  texts  should  be  divided  thus  ;  and  a  great  num- 
ber of  Passages  in  "the  Psalms,  wMch  relate  not  only  to  David,  but  also  to 
Jesus  Christ.  Such  should  be  considered,  first,  Hterally,  as  they  relate  to 
David ;  and  then,  in  the  mystical  sense,  as  they  refer  to  the  Lord  Jesus. 

There  are  also  typical  passages,  which,  besides  their  literal  sense,  have 
also  figurative  meanings,  relating  not  only  to  Jesus  Christ,  but  also  to  the 
church  in  general,  and  to  every  believer  in  particular. 

For  example,  Dan.  ix.  7  :  ""O  Lord,  righteousness  belongeth  to  thee,  but 
unto  us  confusion  of  face,  as  at  this  day,  "  must  not  be  divided  into  parts, 
but  considered  in  different  views :  1.  In  regard  to  all  men  m  general.  2. 
In  regard  to  the  Jewish  Church  in  Daniel's  time.  3.  In  regard  to  ourselves 
at  this  present  daA^  ,  . 

So  again,  Heb.  iii.  7,  8.  "  To-day,  if  ye  will  hear  his  voice,"  which  is 
taken  from  Psalm  xcv.,  cannot  be  better  diA^ided  than  by  refemng  it  —  1. 
To  David's  tune.   2.  St.  Paul's.   And  lastly,  to  our  cwn. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  393 

As  to  the  division  of  the  text  itself,  sometimes  the  order  of  the  words  h 
60  eJear  and  natural,  that  no  division  is  necessarv,  vou  need  only  follow 
simply  the  order  of  the  words.  As  for  exaniple/EpIi.  i.  3.  "  Blessed  be 
the  trod  and  f  ather  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Cluist,  who  hath  blessed  us  with  al] 
spiritual  blessmgs  in  heavenly  places  in  Christ."  It  is  not  necessary  to 
divide  this  text,  because  the  words  divide  themselves,  and  to  explain  them 
we  need  only  to  follow  them.  Here  is  a  grateful  acknowledo-ment.  "  Bles- 
sed be  God.  The  title  under  which  the  Apostle  blesses  God,  "  The  Father 
LpT  Christ  "    The  reason  for  which  he  blesses  him,  because 

he  hath  blessed  us."  I  he  plenitude  of  this  blessing,  "  with  all  blessings.'* 
hl\l  ^V/^^  signified  by  the  term  spiritual.    The  place  Avherihe 

Chrit."''  teavenly  places."   In  whom  he  hath  blessed  us,  "  in 

vn?/°i?.*f  ¥  formally  divided;  for  which  purpose 

?^vl^^     iP't'^'^'P;''"^.^^^^  ''^-''''^  o^'^er  of  nature,  and  put  that 

t::':^^^s;su^'''''  -     p^-^^  th^  rest  ^ust  foi 

•selvi?;'\L"c^CSS  '^^^'^  -^J--^^ 

T.leisp'^  !prfS'      Senemh  yon  may  follow  which  of  the  two  others  you 
«  T?  ,'ro1  tT^  ^'Y^me  texts  that  determine  the  division;  as  Phil.  ii.  13 
It  IS  God  who  worketh  effectually  in  you,  both  to  will  and  to  do  of  his 

tTe\?tion^o?rorl-''  ^^^-^^  ^'^^"g^     be  di'cassed 

the  action  of  God's  grace  upon  men,  "God  worketh  effectually  in  you-'' 
the  effect  of  this  grace,  "  to  will  and  to  do ;  "  and  the  sprino-  or  source  of 
?ot  b?n^;.nr°f  good  pleasure."    I  think  t^he  division  vouM 

not  be  proper  if  we  were  to  treat,  1.  Of  God's  good  oleasure  -  2  Of  h^ 
grace  ;  and  3.  Of  the  will  and  works  of  men.  Pleasure ,  ^.  ut  his 

Above  all  things,  in  divisions,  take  care  of  putting  any  thin^  in  the  first 
Fo  tre'n?nf\l?P"''%'^r  understanding  of  the  second^;  or^which  obi  ges  you 
to  treat  of  the  second  to  make  the  first  understood;  for,  by  these  means 
you  will  throw  yourself  into  great  confusion,  and  be  obligedVEe  many 
tedious  repe  itions.  You  must  endeavour  to  disengage'the  oi  e  ft  om  ISJ 
other  as  well  as  you  can;  and  wdien  your  parts  are  tSo  closely  connected 
with  each  other,  place  the  most  detached  fir'st,  and  endeavoS  to  make  Jhat 

th  '  hrrd'  soThaf  ?t  fhf '  r'^'r'''"'  seconcl^and  the  second  t'o 

tne  inird ,  so  that,  at  the  end  of  your  explicat  on,  the  hearer  mav  at  a 

a  perfect^ody,  a\vell  finished  buiklingT for  one 
ot  the  gieatest  excellences  of  a  sermon  is,  the  harmony  of  its  comnonent 

tS-'  th^t  ttv'i  ''f'  ''^^  ^'^--^^  to IntroZce  the 

follow.        ^^^y '''^^'<'^  SO  before,  excite  a  desire  for  those  which  are  to 

When,  in  a  text,  there  are  several  terms  which  need  a  particular  exnlan 

SLir^^^^^^^^  '"P/^T^  confusion,Cwi;tut  d^lM- 

mg  me  text  mto  too  many  parts,  then  I  would  not  divide  the  text  anil  • 
but  I  would  dmde  the  discourse  into  two  or  three  parS  and  I  would  Sro' 
pose,  first,  to  explain  the  terms,  and  then  the  subject  itself  ^ 

Ihere  are  many  texts,  in  discussing  which,  it  is  not  necessary  to  treat  of 
either  subject  or  attribute;  but  all  the  discussion  depenS  on  the  terms 
sj/ncategoremat^ca  (words  which,  of  themselves,  si^iTfy  noth  no  blS  in 
conjunction  with  others,  are  very  significative).  For TxLple  J^n  i  i  ^6 
worfd' virft^-"''  r^"'^-"  <^-tegorical  propositionTsf  cVd  lovrd  ufe' 

to  speak  in  a  common-place  way  of  the  love  of  God,  but,  divide  the  text 
into  two  parts  ;  first,  the  gift  which  God  in  his  love  hkth  made  of    ?  so?- 

shouM  ^A^'^'  ''t  S""^         "  that  whosoever  be  feveth  n  hTm 

fctioiild  not  perish,  but  have  everlasting  life." 

Ihere  are  texts  of  reasoning,  which  are  composed  of  an  obiection  and 

answer  and  the  division  of  such  is  plain ;  for  thej  naturaUy  Se  into  t£2 


394  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 


objection  and  solution.  As,  Romans  vi.  1,  2,  «  What  shall  we  say  then,;'  &c, 

There  are  some  texts  of  reasoning  which  are  extremely  difficult  to  divide, 
because  they  cannot  be  reduced  into  many  propositions  without  confusion. 
As,  John  iv.  10,  "  If  thou  knewest  the  gift  of  God,"  &c.  I  thinlcit  might 
not  be  improper  to  divide  it  into  two  parts,  the  first  including  tlie  general 
propositions  contained  in  the  words ;  and  the  second,  the  particular  apph- 
cation  of  these  to  the  Samaritan  woman.  , 

There  are  some  texts  which  implv  many  important  trutns  without  ex 
pressing  them :  and  yet  it  will  be  necessary  to  mention  and  enlarge  upon 
them,  either  because  they  are  useful  on  some  important  occasion,  or  be- 
cause they  are  important  of  themselves.  Then  the  text  may  be  divided 
into  tAvo  parts,  one  implied,  and  the  other  expressed.  _     _      i  .  i  • 

In  texts  of  history,  divisions  are  easy  ;  sometimes  an  action  is  related  m 
all  its  circumstances,  and  then  you  may  consider  the  action  in  itself  hrst, 
and  afterward  the  circumstances  of  the  action.  ,  i. 

To  render  a  division  agreeable,  and  easy  to  be  remembered  by  the  hearer, 
endeavour  to  reduce  it  as  often  as  possible  to  simple  terms. 

As  to  subdivisions,  it  is  always  necessary  to  make  them,  for  they  very 
much  assist  the  composition,  and  diffuse  perspicuity  mto  a  discourse  ;  but 
it  is  not  always  necessary  to  mention  them ;  on  the  contrary,  they  must  be 
verj.  seldom  mentioned,  because  it  will  load  the  hearer's  mmd  with  a  mul- 
titude of  particulars.  .  •    .  ^ 

Disnussioji.  There  are  four  methods  of  discussion.  Clear  subjects  must 
be  discussed  by  observation,  or  continued  application ;  diflacult  and  import- 
ant ones  by  explication  or  proposition.  ■,  .         rr         i.  xt, 

I.  i>  Explication.  —  The  difficulty  is  m  regard  to  the  Terms,  to  the  sub 
ject,  or  to  both.  „  •     ^  ^.i, 

1.  Erplication  of  Terms.  —  The  difficulties  of  these  arise  from  three 
causes  ;  either  the  terms  do  not  seem  to  make  any  sense,  or  they  are  e qui 
vocal,  forming  different  senses  ;  or,  the  sense  they  seem  to  make  at  first 
appears  perplexed,  improper,  or  contradictory :  or,  the  meaning,  though 
elear,  may  be  controverted,  and  is  exposed  to  cavil.  ,  ,  • 

Propose  the  ratio  dubitandi,  which  makes  the  difficulty ;  then  determine 
It  as  briefly  as  you  can.  ^    ,       •  i- 

2.  Of  Things.  —  Difficult  things.  If  the  difficulty  arise  from  errors,  or 
false  senses,  refute  and  remove  them  ;  then  establish  the  truth.  \t  trom  the 
hitricacy  of  the  subject  itself,  do  not  propose  difficulties,  and  raise  objections, 
but  enter  immediately  into  the  explication  of  the  matter,  and  take  care  to 
arrange  your  ideas  well.  ^.  ,. 

3.  Important  things,  though  clear,  must  be  discussed  by  exphcation,  be- 

^TheS^ie^'tVo'^sorts  of  explications  ;  the  one,  simple  and  plain,  needs  only 
to  be  proposed,  and  agreeably  elucidated  ;  the  other  must  be  confirmed  if 
it  speak  of  fact,  by  proofs  of  fact ;  if  of  right,  by  pi-oofs  of  right ;  if  of  ooth, 
proofs  of  both.  A  great  and  important  subject,  consisting  of  many  branches, 
may  be  reduced  to  a  certain  number  of  propositions  or  questions,  and  dis- 
cussed one  after  the  other.  ,  .    .      ^    .     -n        •  e 

N.  B.  Sometimes  what  you  will  have  to  explain  m  a  text  will  consist  of 
one  or  more  simple  terms ;  of  ways  of  speaking  pecnli^*  to  Scripture ;  ot 
T)articles  called  syncategorematica  ;  and  sometimes  of  different  propositions. 

1.  Simple  terms  are  the  divine  attributes,  goodness,  &c.,  man's  virtues  or 
vices,  faith,  hope,  &c.  Simple  terms  are  either  proper  or  figurative ;  it 
fip-urative  o-ive  the  meaning  of  the  figure,  and,  without  stopping  long,  pass 
oS  to  the  thing  itself.  Some  simple  terms  must  only  be  explained  just  as 
thev  relate  to  the  intention  of  the  sacred  author;  in  a  word,  explain  simple 
terms  as  much  as  possible,  in  relation  to  the  design  of  the  sacred  author. 
Sometimes  the  simple  terms  in  a  text  must  be  discussed  professedly,  m 
order  to  give  a  clear  and  full  view  of  the  subject.  Sometimes,  when  them 
are  many,  it  might  be  injudicious  to  treat  of  them  separately,  but  beauti 
fully  to  do  it  by  comparison. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  395 

"^"^^^^^'^"^  peculiar  to  Scripture  deserve  a  particular  explanation, 
cS'"  &7  ^''^  meaning;  such  as,  "tabe  m  Christ,"  "come  after 

Particles  called  s7jncategore77iaiica  (such  as  noyie,  some,  alL  now,  when 
&c.),  which  augment  cr  limit  the  meaning  of  the  proposition,  should  be 
cauefiilly  examnied ;  for  often  the  whole  e:;pi:cation  depends  upon  them. 

M  explained  iu  a  text  consists  of  a  proposition, 

irma^o'nrconm^^^^^  necessary,  show  its  importance  ;  if  it  /eqirs  con' 

In  all  cases,  illustrate  \>j  reasons,  example:.,  com.parisons  of  the  subject- 
then-  relations,  conformities,  or  differences.  You  may  do  it  by  consequent 
toUhnTn   f  ^^^^^^f  6'        ^^ho  proposes  the  subject ;  or  the  persona 

Imwp  n         proposed;  by  circumstance,  time,  place,  &c.    You  may  il- 
if.^;  proposition  by  its  evidence  or  inevidence.    It  is  discoverable  by 
topics  ' ^^^^  ^  revelation.    Let  good  sense  choose  the  best 

^Iw?"""^'  a  proposition  includes  many  truths  which  must  be  distin 
guisned;  sometimes  a  proposition  must  be  discussed  in  different  views  • 
sometimes  it  has  different, degrees,  which  must  be  remarked  ;  sometiSer  it 

general,  and  of  htt  e  importance;  then  examine  whether  some  of  its 
fal  appHcTtior''  ""^^^^^^^'^^^^ '         ^^^^  ^^'^     discussed  by  a  particu 

II.  By  observation;  which  is  best  for  clear  and  historical  passages.  Some 

exts  require  both  explication  and  observation.    Sometimes  an  observation 

?n'?^'l',  by  way  of  explication.    Observations,  for  the  most  part^ 

pnght  to  be  tl  eological;  historical,  philosophical,  or  critical,  very  seldom 

butTn^'Sri^'  r^-r''^  ^  scholastic  style,  nor  common-pllce  fo?m 
out  m  a  tree,  easy,  famihar  manner.  ' 

',v^'^dVT'''''i-  ^^^^^  done  without  explaining, 

01  making  observations.  In  this  manner  we  must  principallv  mana-e  texts 
!ea^rSfand';'^^^^  repentance.    In  using^his  ^metLd  something 

searching  and  powerful  must  be  said,  or  better  it  should  be  let  alone, 
loo  f  ■  ^yPr^P'^-^'tioji.  -  The  texts  must  be  reduced  to  two  propositions  at 
least,  and  three  or  four  at  most,  having  a  mutual  dependence  and  conneS 

This  method  opens  the  most  extensive  field  for  discussion.    In  the  for 
your  text;  but  here  your  subject  is  the 
matter  contained  in  your  proposition.  J       =  ^'^'^ 

The  way  of  explication*  is  most  proper  to  give  the  meanin<y  of  Scrin- 
ture;  this  of  systematical  divinity  ;'^  a^d  it  has  this  advaSe  it  wfll 
equally  serve  either  theory  or  practice.  '^avania^e,  it  ^  ill 

t^^;«?;  J^T^'^^^'°  four  ways  are  different  from  each  other,  for  many 
texts  It  may  be  necessary  to  use  two  or  three,  and  for  some,  al  the  fou/ • 
the  discourse  has  its  name  from  the  prevailing  method  of  handlin  "it  ' 
.r.rl  vf.o''°.'-V  ri""'''  ^^^if.o^ght  to  be  Hvely  and  animating,  fulf  of  creat 
and  beautiful  figures.  Aiming  to  move  Christian  affections  As  tliefove 
of  God,  hope  zeal,  repentance,  self-condemnation,  a  desire  of  self-coiTec 
tion,  consolation,  admiration  of  eternal  benefits,  hope  of  fehcitv  con  -ao-e 
and  constancy  in  afflictions,  steadiness  in  temptations,  gratitude  to  gS' 
recourse  to  him  by  prayer,  and  other  such  dispositions.  ' 
To  raiJ  X.'p  T^r'''  f  dispositions;  the  violent,  tender,  and  elevated. 

hfc.     f  '        po"fl?sion  should  be  violent,  tender,  or  elevated.  It 
may  be  sometimes  mixed.  It  must  always  be  diversified. 
UvelV    Tpfc?"  peroration,  or  conclusion,  be  short;  let  it  be  bold  and 
S  or  "^ore  striking  ideas,  not  mentioned  in  the  discus 

sion,  be  reserved  for  this  part,  and  applied  with  vigor. 

*  See  liTo.  I.  on  the  previous  page. 


396  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Example. 

OF  THE  SKELETON  OF  A  SERMON. 

The  existence  of  God. 

The  fool  hath  said  in  his  heart,  there  is  no  God."   Psalms  xiv.  1. 
"The  fool  hath  said,"  — it  is  evident  that  none  but  a  fool  would  have 

^^%he  fool,  a  term  in  Scripture,  signifying  a  wicked  man;  one  who  hatU 
lost  his  wisdom,  and  right  apprehension  of  God  ;  one  dead  m  sm,  yet  one 
not  so  much  void  of  rational  faculties,  as  of  grace  m  those  faculties ;  not 
one  that  wants  reason,  but  one  who  abuses  his  reason. 

"  Said  in  his  heart ; "  i.  e.  he  thinks,  or  he  doubts,  or  he  wishes.  Ihoughts 
are  words  in  heaven.  He  dares  not  openly  publish  it,  though  he  dares  se 
cretlv  to  think  it ;  he  doubts,  he  wishes,  tdid  sometimes  hopes.  ^ 

"There  is  no  God,"  —  no  judge,  no  one  to  govern,  reward,  or  punish. 
Those  who  deny  the  providence  of  God,  do,  in  effect,  deny  his  existence ; 
they  strip  him  of  that  wisdom,  goodness,  mercy,  and  justice,  which  are  the 
glory  of  the  Deity.  „  ,    ,  -.^l     i.  i 

Men  who  desire  liberty  to  commit  works  of  darkness,  would  not  only 
have  the  lights  in  the  house  dimmed,  but  extinguished.  What  men  say 
against  Providence,  because  they  would  have  no  check,  they  would  say 
in  their  hearts  against  the  very  existence  of  God,  because  they  would  have 

^^^^helxistence  of  God  is  the  foundation  of  all  religion.  The  whole  build 
ing  totters,  if  the  foundation  be  out,  of  course.  We  must  believe  that  he 
is,  and  that  he  is  what  he  declared  himself,  before  we  can  seek  him,  adore 
him,  and  love  him. 

It  is,  therefore,  necessary  we  should  know  why  we  believe,  that  our  be- 
lief be  founded  on  undeniable  evidence,  and  that  we  may  give  a  better 
reason  for  his  existence,  than  that  we  have  heard  our  parents  and  teachers 
tell  us  so.  It  is  as  much  as  to  say,  "  There  is  no  God,"  when  we  have  no 
better  arguments  than  those.  .  , ^    ,  .       .    .  .1 

That  we  may  be  fully  persuaded  of,  and  estaWished  m  this  truth,  en 

deavour,  .         ^  r-       ^-u  ^ 

I  To  brino-  forward  a  few  observations  m  the  deience  mereoi. 
1.  All  natm-e  shows  the  existence  of  its  Maker.  We  cannot  open  our 
eyes  but  we  discover  this  truth  shine  through  all  creatures.  I  he  whole 
universe  bears  the  character  and  stamp  of  a  First  Cause,  infinitely  wise, 
infinitely  powerful.  Let  us  cast  our  eyes  on  the  earth  which  bears  us, 
and  ask, Who  laid  the  foundation  ?  "  Job  xxxviii.  4.  Let  us  look  on  that 
vast  arch  of  skies  that  covers  us,  and  inquire,  "  Who  hath  thus  stretched  it 
forth  ^  "  Isaiah  xl.  21,  52.  "  Who  is  it  also  that  hath  fixed  so  many  lumin- 
ous bodies,  with  so  much  order  and  regularity  ?  "  Job  xxvi.  13.  The  va- 
rious works  of  creation  proclaim  to  us  "  His  eternal  power  and  godhead. 
Romans  i.  20  ;  Acts  xiv.  16,  17  ;  xvii.  26.  Every  plant,  every  atom,_as  well 
as  every  star,  bear  witness  of  a  Deity.  Who  ever  saw  statues,  or  pictures, 
but  concluded  there  had  been  a  statuary  and  limner  ?  Who  can  behold 
garments,  ships,  or  houses,  and  not  understand  there  was  a  weaver,  a  car 
lenter,  an  architect?  All  things  that  are  demonstrate  something  from 
whence  they  are.  A  man  may  as  well  doubt  whether  there  be  a  sun 
when  he  sees  his  beams  gilding  the  earth,  as  doubt  whether  there  be  a  God. 
when  he  sees  his  works.  Psalms  xlx.  1  -  6.  ,  ,  .  ^  ,  .  , 
The  Atheist  is,  therefore,  a  fool,  because  he  denies  that  which  every 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  3^7 

creature  in  his  constitution  asserts;  can  he  behold  the  spider's  net  or  tho 

"etZ'^^^^^  'tf  '''''''^  gmnanes,CitLura;.know 

th&^?nh^-?    •    ''^^^^^^^  a_  creature,  who  hath  planted  that  genius  in 
uSel  V  20     AlT't'hf "  against  Sisera  " 

2.  The  dread  of  conscience  is  an  argument  to  convince  us  of  this  tmfh 

of  £S  °Snd'tt  '^!'"  ^-^^^         ""''''^'^  wS  1  lanfu^ife 

ot  Cam ;  and  the  like  apprehensions  are  not  seldom  in  those  who  fed  the 
fury  of  an  enraged  conscience.  The  psalmist  tells  us  concernii^l  those  who 
s  ^  Psa?r  '  Tl'"'  fear  wVre^^^^ 

^Dpift  w\  ;  ;>  Their  guilty  mmds  invent  terrors,  and  thereby  confess 
nnm-^b^'Pn  i  ^^^7  ^eny  it  _  that  there  is  a  sovereign  Being  who  will 
punish.  Pashur,  who  wickedly  insulted  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  hid  this  for 
iw"''?'  should  be  Magor-missabib,"  i.  e  »  fear  round 

abou  Jeremiah  xx.  3,  4.  When  Belshazzar  saw  the  hand  writS-  ^S 
countenance  was  changed,"  Daniel  v.  6.  The  apostle  Avho  tells  us  that 
there  IS  a law  Avritten  in  the  hearts  of  men,"  Jdds,  their  "  cLcie^^^^^ 
also  bear  witness,"  Romans  ii.  15.    The  natur'al  sting  and  horror  of  con! 

The  Atheist  is  a  fool,  because  he  useth  violence  to  his  conscience  The 
operations  of  conscience  are  universal.  The  iron  bars  uZn  Sraoh'. 
conscience  at  last  gave  way.    Exodus  ix.  27.  ^      Jr-^aiaoh  s 

flmon  YZ7''i-  ''''''''•I argument.  The  notion  of  a  God  is  found 
m^«t  °nK  language  of  every  country  and  rec^ion  the 

most  abominable  idolatry  argues  a  Deity.  All  nations,  though  ever  so 
barbarous  and  profligate,  have  confessed  some  God.  This  univefsal  verdict 
1  W^'^^  ?°  '^^^  ^^^^^  «f  G^d,  the  testiSLy  o7iea  on  and 
not  heafd^'  '  '  'P'^'^^'       ^""^^^  ^^^'^  this  voiced 

grati^r'tfe  mtS^'?'a[lf  '^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  - 

Prfr;."?'^^'''''''''^'^^''''^  t^Sr>ients.  When  a  just  revenge  follows  abominable 
\  ^^Pf  i^llJ  ^vhen  the  judgment  is  suited  to  the^sin  ;  when  th^  s"n  s 
Sd?mp'f''^\-\*^'  '^^^"^'^  judgments.  "The  Lord  s  known  bv  thi 
MtTutlT-  '^^'""^  executes,"  Psalms  ix.  16.  Herod  Agrippl  received 
the  flat  erjng  applause  of  the  people,  and  thought  himself  a  God  :  but  was 

2Y-23rjX'fi/6,'rAct?v^^  ^'^^"'^^^  another.  'AcL'xli! 

5  Accomplishments'of  prop^^^^^^  To  foretell  things  that  are  future  as 
itt^  did  ^  ready  exist,  or  had  existed  long  ago,  must  be  the  result  of  a 

SSah  xh" 23^  'K^^'-l'  t^^t       t°  hereafter." 

isa  ah  xh.  23.  I  am  God,  declaring  the  end  from  the  beginning."  Isaiah 
h^wol  K  M  ^^^^  prophesied  of,  Isaiah  xHv.  28,  and  xfv.  1,  lone  before 
r\JZ    W'-  ^l^^^^der's  sight  of  Daniel's  prophecy  concerning  h?s  vi'?o! 

c  phe^Tin  C  pVS^r"^?."'?''^;.  '^^^  four  monarchies  are^plainryle- 
cipneied  in  Daniel,  before  the  fourth  rose  up.    That  power  which  forPtPli« 

nrlTr '^^'''^  ^¥  7'^  «^ders  all  causes^?o  bring  abounhose 

predictions,  must  be  an  infinite  power:  the  same  as  made  sustains  and  " 

f.l'"1n1\lt"Sir"'^^^^/^^f  P^---r-d  to  bring'  a'brufhrs\wn 
lsaiahx?v  6,  7.    ^  ^  """^        Lord,  and  there  is  none  else,' 

tri^^te  ftol^tW^  their  eyes,  and  stop  their  ears;  to  at 

tr pute  tnose  things  to  bhnd  chance,  which  nothino-  less  than  an  infinif^K, 
wise  and  infinitely  powerful  Being  could  eff-e<i  !    °  ^  mhxx.tely 

II.  A  tew  observations. 

theherakfAf^iS  '^f  u'^f  '^^^^  creatures;  the  creatures  are 
the  heralds  of  God's  glory.  "  The  glory  of  the  Lord  shall  end'ire  -  Psalms 


34 


898 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


The  world  is  a  sacred  temple ;  man  is  introduced  to  contemplate  it.  A» 
grace  does  not  destroy  nature,  so  the  book  of  redemption  does  not  blot  out 
the  book  of  creation.    Read  nature ;  nature  is  a  friend  to  truth. 

2.  If  it  be  a  folly  to  deny  or  doubt  the  being  of  God,  is  it  not  a  folly  also 
not  to  worship  God,  when  we  acknowledge  his  existence  ?  "  To  fear  God, 
and  keep  his  commandments,  is  the  whole  duty  of  man." 

We  are  not  reasonable  if  we  are  not  religious.  "  Your  reasonable  ser- 
vice," Romans  xii.  1. 

3.  If  it  be  a  foUy  to  deny  the  existence  of  God,  will  it  not  be  our  wisdom 
since  we  acknowledge  his  being,  often  to  think  of  him  ?  It  is  the  black 
mark  of  a  fool,  "  God  is  not  in  all  his  thoughts,"  Psalms  x.  4. 

4.  If  we  believe  the  being  of  God,  let  us  abhor  practical  Atheism.  Ac 
tions  speak  louder  than  words. 

"  They  professed  that  they  knew  God,"  Titus  i.  16.  Men's  practices  are 
the  best  indexes  to  their  principles.  "  Let  your  light  shine  before  men." 
jyiatthew  V.  16. 

The  following  Sheletojis  are  on  a  different  jplan.^ 
1. 

Psalm  xlvi.  1,  "  God  is  our  refuge  and  strength,  a  very  present  help  in 
trouble." 

Sorrow  is  our  common  lot,  many  seem  to  know  little  of  it,  the  widow, 
fatherless,  «&c.  ;  text  needs  no  explanation. 

I.  The  wonderful  condescension  of  God  in  assuming  this  character  to 
wards  man,  —  not,  however,  according  to  the  usual  reasoning,  —  man's 
greatness,  — his  progressive  faculties  will  equal  angels,  &c.  Surpass  all 
intelhgence  except  God,  — but  there  will  still  be  an  infinite  distance  be- 
tween God  and  man,  — Man's  moral  estate  ;  these  the  reasons. 

II.  The  emphasis  of  the  i%yiX,— present^  very  present^  — ovcc  mechanical 
habits,  —  the  divine  presence  not  realized,  —  a  man  first  awakened  or  con- 
victed feels  it,  —  but  soon  is  lost,  —  suppose  a  pure  and  holy  being  were 
present  at  your  sins,  —  as  an  angel,  —  but  God  is  present !  See  the  Christ- 
ian in  a  storm  at  sea,  —  hearing  the  crash,  indulging  sin.  — 

Objection  to  the  infinite  God's  caring  for  man,  — all  worlds  particles  of 
sand.  —  How  should  this  thought  affect  us,  —  Mother  !  Jesus  stood  at  the 
coffin  of  thy  infant  child,  at  the  grave  of  thy  parents !  He  is  with  thee. 
<5hall  we  weep  and  repine  even  in  a  garret,  when  God  is  with  us  ? 

III.  Cautiousness  of  the  text.  — He  is  a  help,  — not  sole  deliverer,— 
there  is  sometning  for  us  to  do,  —  prayer  is  one  reason  of  it.  —  Nothing 
■^herwise.  —  Farmer.  —  Mechanic,  —  health  by  medicine. 

IV.  Applicability  of  the  text  to  all  the  poor  unfortunate,  —  stranger,  — 
widow,  —  orphan,  —  mourner,  —  Christian  in  temptation,  —  quality  of  all, 
A  guilty  conscience. 

2. 

Eev.  vii.  17,  "  God  shall  wipe  away  all  tears  from  their  eyes."  Context, 
-  Nature  and  probable  design  of  these  prophecies.  — 

1.  Afflictions  in  the  present  state  of  the  Christian,  an  important  and  ad 
vrantageous  part  of  his  moral  discipline.  1.  The  fact  that  they  are  per 
mitted,  shows  that  they  are  advantageous.  —  How  many  instances,  —  texts. 

2.  They  afi'ord  exercise  for  our  Christian  virtues,  moral,  —  fortitude 
patience,  resignation. 

3.  They  show  us  the  futility  of  worldly  comforts,  —  our  friends  c;e,— 
health  and  beauty  fade,  —  wealth  and  pleasure  must  be  left  behind  us. 


*  They  are,  in  fact,  tlio  notes  of  a  distinguished  extemporaneous  preacliev. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  399 

afflkti^n  ^  discipline  is  preparatory  to  another  which  shall  be  exempt  from 

K-,-n,  Jl'^  ^f^P^^T  '''f-^''^  existence  of  such  a  place  called  heaven. 
trSf  ofTmmSality'''^  '  J^^^^alem,  &c.  It  is  implied  in  the  doc- 
2.  It  is  consistent  with  all  rational  supposition.  —  Analogy  between  this 
world  and  otner  planets.  -  3.  Ail  causes  of  sorrow  shall  ceafe  there.  -  4  It 
IS  everlastmg  m  its  duration.  —  ^ 

APPLICATION. 

o«?A^  address  the  mourner  who  has  lost  friends,  estate,  health?  — the 
aged?  — youtli  dechning  in  early  life?  &c. 

3. 

thing!'''^'      "^""^        ^"""^  *°      zealously  affected  always  in  a  good 

hearf"''*S^r?.nlvi^"' •  ^"^0  activity  the  noblest  sentiments  of  the 

zeal  'l^fp  rh!!/-  undaunted  perseverance,- 

A^hirT  ^^iisti^n  s  hfe  IS  a  holy  warfare,— a  holy  chivalry.  —  The 
Apostle  lays  down_  the  proposition,  that  if  anytliing  is  good,  it  is  Zod  to  be 

I  Tn  fesntct  to'i^^        ^''^  ^''^  -  Chris^tianity  is^od  conldered 
J.  in  lespect  to  its  or^^?*,  —  divine,  —  bears  its  marks,  — it  is  interesting 

GoZ  rZ.'!!''"'''^'''-^^'  ^''"^  "^''^  revelation, -'the  noblest  gift  o^ 
II.  In  its  nature,  — its  theory  of  doctrines,  —  its  code  of  moral  rules  was 
?S;?tW         \J^^l-^oj,l.y      2.^  EduUtion,-all1m"ro";mtt  S 
vtifon, -tr^umph-o^^r  i^^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^^  ^      effects,-its  preser  ■ 

re™;J?coSctn;;"''"''^^^  Benevolence,-2.  Death.-3. 

Sul.^T/o:\^^^^^^^^^  ---2-  Elevates  society.-3. 

wn!!iffTi'^'^^''  zealous  1.  Because  God  commands  us  to  be  so.  2.  The 
Sd^o  t'rTS'  ^  '"^^  ^^V'-  ?■  ^^PP^"^^^  h^^^^fter  will  be  proper 
S  examn lef  to  7nS  P^^^^f  P^^«^l/«  ^^ell  as  Scriptural  fact.  -  We  hav^ 
tefield  &c       ''^P^'--*^^  ^P^^^l^S'  martyrs,  and  reformers,  -  Wesley, 


XCVIII. 


SUBJECTS  FOR  COMPOSITIONS  OF  ALL  SORTS 


Mythology. 

Rural  happiness. 

Our  native  land. 

Description  of  a  storm. 

Scene  at  a  summer's  noon. 

A  winter  landscape. 
7.  A  market  day. 
S.  An  evening  walk. 
9.  The  entrance  of  Christ  into  Je- 
rusalem. 


10.  Euins  of  Rome. 

"  Greece. 

11.  Twilight. 

12.  A  winter  evening. 

13.  Moonlight  at  sea. 

14.  Spring. 

15.  Summer. 

16.  Autumn. 

17.  Winter.  . 

18.  The  equator. 


400  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


19.  The  tropics. 

20.  Mid-summer. 

21.  Eural  scenery. 

22.  Eeview  of  the  seasons. 

23.  Solitude. 

24.  The  love  of  order. 

25.  Evils  of  obstinacy. 

26.  Firmness. 

27.  Delicacy  of  feeling. 

28.  Delicacy  of  taste. 

29.  Novels. 

30.  Tales  of  fiction. 

31.  Contemplation. 

32.  Correspondence   between  true 

politeness  and  religion. 

33.  Sympathy. 

34.  The  advantages  of  a  good  educa- 

tion. 

35.  The  effects  of  learning  on  the 

countenance. 

36.  Power  of  habit. 

37.  The  art  of  pleasing. 

38.  Comparison  of  history  and  biog 

raphy. 

39.  The  passions. 

40.  The  difference  between  beauty 

and  fashion. 

41.  Enterprise. 

42.  Exertion. 

43.  Importance  of  a  good  character. 

44.  Criticism. 

45.  Religious  education. 

46.  Monumental  inscriptions. 

47.  On  forming  connexions. 

48.  Qualifications  for  the  enjoyment 

of  friendship. 

49.  Duties  of  hospitali.ty. 

50.  Moral  principles. 

51.  Moral  duties. 

52.  Civility. 

53.  Family  quarrels,  their  causes, 

and  mode  of  preventing  them. 

54.  Early  attachments. 

55.  Taste   for   the   cultivation  of 

flowers. 

56.  Government  of  temper. 

57.  Comedy. 

58.  Tragedy. 

59.  Uses  of  adversity. 

60.  Poetical  taste. 

61.  Manners. 

62.  Modesty  of  merit. 

63.  Method. 

64.  Parental  indulgence. 

65.  Parental  severity. 

66.  Profligacy. 

67.  The  study  of  the  Latin  language. 

68.  The  study  of  the  French  lan- 

guage. 


69.  Ingenuity. 

70.  Eloquence. 

71.  Fancy. 

72.  Imagination.  . 

73.  Classical  learnii  g. 

74.  Taste  for  simple  pleasures. 

75.  Scepticism. 

76.  Amusements. 

77.  Efficacy  of  moral  instruction. 

78.  A  cultivated  mind  necessary  fot 

the  enjoyment  of  retirement. 

79.  Want  of  'personal  beauty  as 

affecting  virtue  and  happi 
ness. 

SO.  Happiness  of  domestic  life. 

81.  Evils  of  public  life. 

82.  Modesty  a  sign  of  merit. 

83.  Equanimity  the  best  support 

under  affliction. 

84.  Ill  effects  of  ridicule. 

85.  Necessity  of  temperance  to  the 

health  of  the  mind. 

86.  Moral  effects  of  painting  and 

sculpture. 

87.  The  choice  of  a  profession. 

88.  Selfishness. 

89.  Literary  genius. 

90.  Necessity  of  attention  to  things 

as  well  as  to  books. 

91.  Fear  of  growing  old. 

92.  The  butterfly  and  its  changes. 

93.  Freedom. 

94.  The  rose. 

95.  The  lily. 

96.  Remorse. 

97.  The  voice. 

98.  Grace. 

99.  Gesture. 

100.  Woman. 

101.  Man. 

102.  Youth  and  manhood. 

103.  The  sacred  Scriptures 

104.  The  press, 

105.  The  pulpit, 

106.  The  human  frame. 

107.  Travelling. 

108.  Language. 

109.  Liberty. 

110.  Infidelity. 

111.  Atheism. 

112.  Independence. 

113.  The  existence  of  God. 

114.  Light. 

115.  Darkness, 
116  Heat, 

117.  Cold, 

118.  The  rainbow. 

119.  The  wife. 

120.  The  husband. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


121.  Influence  of  Christianity,  ISO. 

122.  Stability  of  character.  181. 

123.  Instability  of  character.  182. 

124.  Peevishness.  183, 

125.  Art  of  pleasing.  184. 

126.  Local  associations.  185. 

127.  Influence  of  female  character  l&Q. 

128.  Discretion.  187. 

129.  New  England.  188. 

130.  Paternaf  Influence.  189. 

131.  Maternal  influence. 

132.  Intemperance.  190. 

133.  Fashionable  Follies.  191. 

134.  Emigration.  192. 

135.  Intellectual  dissipation.  193. 

136.  Intellectual  discipline.  194. 

137.  The  warrior.  195. 

138.  The  statesman.  196.' 

139.  The  legislator.  197. 

140.  The  judge.  198 

141.  A  field  of  battle.  199. 

142.  A  naval  engagement.  200. 

143.  Immortality.  201. 

144.  Decision  of  character.  202. 

145.  Romance.  203. 

146.  Flattery.  204. 

147.  Industry  205. 

148.  Temperance.  206. 

149.  Resentment.  207. 

150.  Lying.  208. 

151.  Piety.  209. 

152.  Anger.  210. 

153.  Poetry. 

154.  Envy.  211. 

155.  Virtue.  212. 

156.  Justice.  213. 

157.  Adversity.  214! 

158.  Pride.  215. 

159.  Compassion.  216. 

160.  Avarice.  217. 

161.  Slander.  218. 

162.  Mercy.  219* 

163.  Wealth.  220. 

164.  Prudence.  221. 

165.  Gratitude.  222. 

166.  Afl"ectation.  223. 

167.  Loquacity.  224. 

168.  Wisdom.  225. 

169.  Luxury.  226. 

170.  Health.  227. 

171.  Pleasure.  228. 

172.  Gaming.  229. 
273.  Religion.  230.* 

174.  Study.  231. 

175.  Experience.  232. 

176.  Peace  and  war.  233. 

177.  Want  and  plenty.  234. 

178.  Ignorance  and  learning.  235. 

179.  Happiness  and  misery.  236 


Virtiie  and  vice. 
Parsimony  and  prodigality. 
Hope  and  fear. 
Reward  and  punishment. 
Beauty  and  deformity. 
Affection  and  hatred. 
Arrogance  and  humility. 
Order  and  Confusion. 
Carelessness  and  caution 
Contentment  and  dissatisfae- 
tion. 

Emulatidn  and  sloth. 
Cleanliness. 
Religious  intolerance. 
Charity. 
Contentment. 
Courage. 
Hope. 

Perseverance. 
Conscience. 
Death. 
Life. 
Sickness. 
Health. 
Good  humor. 
Omniscience  of  God. 
Omnipresence  of  God. 
Truth. 
Sincerity. 
Procrastination 
Trust  in  God. 

Pleasures    resulting  from, 
proper  use  of  our  faculties. 
Modesty. 
Application. 
Discretion. 
Christianity. 
Suspicion. 
Fortitude. 
Forgiveness. 
The  seasons. 
Filial  affection. 
Harmony  of  nature. 
Adversity. 

Distribution  of  time.  * 
Sources  of  knowledge. 
Conjugal  affection. 
Filial  piety. 
Generosity. 
Heroism. 
Despair. 
Government. 

Dramatic  entertainments. 
Fables  and  allegories. 
Figurative  language. 
Commerce. 
Chivalry. 
Philosophy. 
Natural  history. 


402 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITIOW. 


337.  Astronomy. 

238.  The  invention  of  the  mariners'  compass. 

239.  The  invention  of  the  telescope. 

240.  The  apphcation  of  steam. 

241.  The  invention  of  the  steam  engine. 

242.  The  mathematics. 

243.  Astrology. 

244.  Modern  discoveries. 

245.  Architecture. 

246.  The  law. 

247.  The  learned  professions. 

248.  Curiosity. 

249.  Nature. 

250.  Art. 

251.  The  influence  and  importance  of  the  female  character. 

252.  Is  the  expectation  of  reward  or  the  fear  of  punishment  the  greater  in 

centive  to  exertion  ? 

253.  The  value  of  time,  and  the  uses  to  which  it  should  be  applied. 

254.  The  character  of  the  Eoman  Emperor  Nero,  —  of  Caligula,  —  of  Augu* 

tus,  —  of  Julius  Csesar,  —  of  Numa  Pompilius. 

255.  The  duties  we  owe  to  our  parents,  and  the  consequences  of  a  neglec  -. 

of  them. 

256.  How  blessings  brighten  as  they  take  their  flight. 

257.  How  dear  are  all  the  ties  that  bind  our  race  in  gentleness  together. 

258.  The  advantages  of  early  rising ;  and  the  arguments  which  maj  be  ad 

duced  to  prove  it  a  duty. 

259.  Misery  is  wed  to  guilt. 

260.  A  soul  without  reflection,  like  a  pile 
Without  inhabitant,  to  ruin  runs. 

261 .  Still  where  rosy  pleasure  leads 
See  a  kindred  grief  pursue, 
Behind  the  steps  that  misery  treads 
Approaching  comforts  view. 

262.  'T  is  Providence  alone  secures, 

In  every  change,  both  mine  and  yours. 

263.  Know  then  this  truth,  enough  for  man  to  know, 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below. 

264.  Prayer  ardent  opens  heaven. 
Whatever  is,  is  right. 

265.  Knowledge  and  plenty  vie  with  each  other. 

266.  When  beggars  die  there  are  no  comets  seen ; 

The  heavens  themselves  blaze  forth  the  death  of  princes. 

267.  Friendship  is  constant  in  all  other  things 
Save  in  the  oflSice  and  affairs  of  love. 

268.  '  Man,  proud  man, 

Drest  in  a  little  brief  authority, 

Most  ignorant  of  what  he  's  most  assured. 

269.  No  might  nor  greatness  in  mortality 

Can  censure  'scape ;  back-wounding  calumny 
The  whitest  virtue  strikes. 

270.  They  say,  best  men  are  moulded  out  of  faults. 

271.  What  we  have  we  prize  not  to  the  Avorth 
Whiles  we  enjoy  it ;  but  being  lacked  and  lost, 
Why  then  we  rack  the  value  ;  then  we  find 
The  virtue  that  possession  would  not  show  us 
Whiles  it  was  ours. 

272.  All  delights  are  vain ;  but  that  most  vain 
Which,  with  pain  ourchased,  doth  inherit  pain. 

273  Light,  seeking  lighV,  doth  light  of  light  beguile. 


AIDS  TO   ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


274  Too  much  to  know  is  to  know  nought  but  fame. 

275  Where  is  any  author  in  the  world 
Teaches  such  beauty  as  a  woman's  eye  ? 

S76.  The  hind  that  would  be  mated  by  the  lion 

Must  die  for  love. 
'277.  Our  remedies  oft  in  ourselves  do  lie 

Which  we  ascribe  to  heaven, 

278.  The  web  of  our  hfe  is  of  mingled  yarn, 
Good  and  ill  together :  our  virtues  would  be 
Proud,  if  our  faults  whipped  them  not ;  and  our 
Crimes  would  despair  if  they  were  not 
Cherished  by  our  virtues. 

279.  Let 's  take  the  instant  by  the  forward  top ; 
For  we  are  old,  and  on  our  quickest  decrees 
The  inaudible  and  noiseless  foot  of  time 
Steals  ere  we  can  effect  them. 

280.  They  lose  the  world  that  do  buy  it  with  much  car 

281.  I  can  easier  teach  twenty  what  were 
Good  to  be  done,  than  be  one  of  the  twenty  to 
Follow  mine  own  teaching. 

282.  All  things  that  are, 

Are  with  more  spirit  chased  than  enjoyed. 

283.  Love  is  blind,  and  lovers  cannot  see 
The  petty  follies  that  themselves  commit. 

284.  The  world  is  still  deceived  with  omament. 

285.  The  man  that  hath  no  music  in  himself, 

Nor  is  not  moved  with  concord  of  sweet  sounds, 
Is  fit  for  treason,  stratagems  and  spoils. 

286.  The  nightingale,  if  she  would  sing  by  day, 
When  every  goose  is  cackling,  would  be  thought 
No  better  a  musician  than  the  wren. 

How  many  things  by  season  seasoned  are 
To  their  right  praise  and  true  perfection. 

287.  This  our  life  exempt  from  public  haunt, 

Finds  tongues  in  trees,  books  in  the  running  brook&, 
Sermons  in  stones,  and  good  in  every  thing. 

288.  Oftentimes,  to  win  us  to  our  harm, 

The  instruments  of  darkness  tell  us  truths, 
Win  us  with  trifles,  to  betray  us 
In  deepest  consequence. 

289.  I  dare  do  all  that  may  become  a  man, 
Who  dares  do  more  is  none. 

290.  If  it  were  done,  Avhen  'tis  done,  then 't  wero  well 
It  were  done  quickly. 

29L  Memory,  the  warder  of  the  brain. 

292.  Noughts'  had,  all's  spent 

Where  our  desire  is  got  without  content. 

293.  Things  without  remedy 
Should  be  without  regard. 

294.  When  our  actions  do  not, 
Our  fears  do  make  us  traitors. 

295.  Angels  are  bright  still,  though  the  brightest  fell. 

296.  The  grief  that  does  not  speak 

Whispers  the  o'erfraught  heart,  and  bids  it  break. 

297.  Courage  monnteth  with  occasion. 

298.  When  fortune  means  to  men  most  good, 

She  looks  upon  them  with  a  threatening  eye. 

299.  He  that  stands  upon  a  slippery  place 
Makes  nice  of  no  vile  hold  to  stay  him  up. 


404  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  CGMPOSITIOBT. 

V 

300.  Often  times  excusing  of  a  fanlt 

Doth  make  the  fault  the  worse  by  the  excuse, 
As  patches,  set  upon  a  little  breach 
Discredit  more  in  hiding  of  the  fault 
Than  did  the  fault  before  it  was  so  patched. 

301.  How  oft  the  sight  of  means  to  do  ill  deeds 
Makes  deeds  ill  done  ! 

302.  That  which  in  mean  men  we  entitle  patience, 
Is  pale,  cold  cowardice  in  noble  breasts. 

303.  Woe  doth  the  heavier  sit 

Where  it  perceives  it  is  but  faintly  borne. 

304.  Gnarling  sorrow  hath  less  power  to  bite 
The  man  that  mocks  at  it  and  sets  it  light. 

305.  O  who  can  hold  a  fire  in  his  hand 
By  thinking  on  the  frosty  Caucasus  ? 
Or  cloy  the  hungry  edge  of  appetite, 
By  bare  imagination  of  a  feast  ? 

Or  wallow  naked  in  December's  snow. 
By  thinking  on  fantastic  summer's  heat  ? 
Oh,  no  !  the  apprehension  of  the  good, 
Gives  but  the  greater  feeling  to  the  worse  • 
FeU  sorrow's  tooth  doth  never  rankle  more 
Than  when  it  bites,  but  lanceth  not  the  sore, 

306.  If  all  the  year  were  playing  holidays. 
To  sport  would  be  as  tedious  as  to  work. 

307.  The  better  part  of  valor  is  discretion. 

308.  See  what  a  ready  tongue  suspicion  hath  ! 

He  that  bxit  fears  the  thing  he  would  not  know, 
Hath,  by  instinct,  knowledge  from  others'  eyes. 
That  what  he  feared,  is  chanced. 

309.  Nought  so  vile,  that  on  the  earth  doth  live. 
But  to  the  earth  some  special  good  doth  give; 
Nor  aught  so  good,  but  strained  from  that  fair 
Eevolts  from  true  birth,  stumbling  on  abuse. 
Virtue  itself  turns  vice,  being  misapplied, 
And  vice  sometimes 's  by  action  dignified. 

310.  Striving  to  better,  oft  we  mar  what 's  well. 
311-  O  reason  not  the  need  ;  our  basest  beggars 

Are  in  the  poorest  thing  superfluous : 
Allow  not  nature  more  than  nature  needs, 
Man's  life  is  cheap  as  beast's. 
^12.     Give  thy  thoughts  no  tongue, 

Nor  any  unproportioned  thought  his  act. 

313.  The  friends  thou  hast  and  their  adoption  tried, 
Grapple  them  to  thy  soul  with  hooks  of  steel. 

314.  Beware 

Of  entrance  to  a  quarrel :  but,  being  in, 
Bear  it,  that  the  opposer  may  beware  of  thee 

315.  Give  every  man  thy  ear,  but  few  thy  voice. 

316.  The  apparel  oft  proclaims  the  man. 

317.  Neither  a  borrower  nor  a  lender  be  ; 
For  loan  oft  loseth  both  itself  and  friend. 
And  borrowing  dulls  the  edge  of  husbandry 

318.  To  thine  own  self  be  true  ; 

And  it  must  follow,  as  the  night  the  day, 
Thou  canst  not  then  be  false  to  any  man 

319.  Trifles,  light  as  air, 

Are  to  the  jealous  confirmations  strong 
As  proofs  of  holy  writ.  ^ 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  405 

320.     He  that  is  robbed,  not  wanting  what  is  stolen, 
Let  hiin  not  know  it  and  he 's  not  robbed  at  all. 


SUBJECTS  FOR  CONFEKENCES. 

1.  On  the  mineral,  animal,  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  as  fumishinff  subiecta 

ot  interesting  inquiry. 

2.  On  reflection,  reading,  and  observation,  as  affording  a  knowledge  of  hu 

man  nature.  ^ 

3.  On  the  present  character  of  the  inhabitants  of  New-England,  as  result- 

ing from  the  civil,  literary,  and  religious  institutions  of  our  fore 
fathers. 

4.  The  stability  of  the  General  Government  of  the  United  States  as  affect 

ed  by  a  national  literature,  common  dangers,  facility  of  mutual 
intercourse,  and  a  general  diffusion  of  knowledge. 

5.  The  obligations  of  a  country  to  her  warriors,  her  statesmen,  her  artists, 

and  her  authors. 

6.  Public  amusements,  splendid  religious  ceremonies,  warlike  preparations, 

and  a  display  of  a  rigid  police,  as  means  of  despotic  power. 

7.  Jl  he  comparative  virtue  of  the  enlightened  and  ignorant  classes. 

«.  On  the  value  to  a  nation  of  the  abstract  sciences,  the  physical  sciences 
and  hterature.  ' 

9.  The  associations  excited  by  visiting  Italy,  Greece,  Egypt,  and  Palestine, 

considered  with  reference  to  their  ancient  history. 

10.  On  the  fine  arts,  as  affecting  the  morals,  refinement,  patriotism,  and 

religion  of  a  country.  ' 

11.  On  architecture,  painting,  poetry,  and  music,  as  tending  to  produce 

and  perpetuate  religious  impressions. 

12.  On  the  comparative  operation  in  obstructing  the  progress  of  truth,  of 

the  spirit  of  controversy,  the  reverence  of  antiquity,  the  passion  of 
novelty,  and  the  acquiescence  in  authority. 

13.  On  the  character  of  Hume,  Eobertson,  Gibbon,  and  Mitford,  as  histo- 

rians. ' 

14.  On  the  characteristics  of  man  and  government,  as  found  in  the  savage 

pastoral,  agricultural,  and  commercial  state.  ' 
10.  On  patronage,  emulation,  and  personal  necessity,  as  promotive  of  lit- 
erary exertion. 

16.  On  the  effect  of  agriculture  and  manufactures  on  the  morals  of  the 

community. 

17.  On  the  mfluence  of  Greek,  Latin,  English,  and  French  literature  on 

taste. 

iq'       novels  foraned  on  fashionable,  humble,  and  sea  hfe. 

19.  Natural,  civil,  ecclesiastical,  and  literary  history,  considered  in  relation 

facumer^^^"*^^  of  each  to  improve  and  elevate  the  intellectual 

20.  Miss  Edgeworth,  Hannah  More,  and  Mrs.  Hemans. 

Cowplr^      ^^'^^  ^'^^^  Wortley  Montague,  Horace  Walpole,  and 

22.  Personal  merit  and  powerful  friends,  as  promoting  advancement  in  Hfe. 
^3.  Ihe  influence  of  Young's  and  Cowper's  Poems. 

24.  The  commercial  spirit  of  modern  times,  considered  in  its  influence  on 

the  political,  moral,  and  literary  character  of  a  nation. 
io.  bterne,  Rabelais,  and  Cervantes. 

26.  The  difference  of  feeling  in  the  young  and  the  old,  with  reo-ard  to  in 
novation.  ° 

?7.  War,  commerce,  and  missionary  enterprises,  as  means  of  civilizine 
barbarous  countries. 


406 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


28.  The  political  refDrmer,  the  schoolmaster,  and  the  missionary. 

29.  The  country  gentleman  and  the  plebeian. 

30.  Ancient  and  modern  honors  to  the  dead. 

31.  Common  sense,  genius,  and  learning,  —  their  characteristics,  compara 

tive  value,  and  success. 

32.  The  prospects  of  a  scholar,  a  politician,  and  an  independent  gentleman 

in  the  United  States. 

33.  Contemporary  and  subsequent  narratives,  of  historical  events. 

34.  Franklin,  Davy,  and  Fulton.    The  comparative  value  of  tlieir  discove 

ries  and  improvements. 

35.  The  comparative  influence  of  natural  scenery,  the  institutions  of  socie 

ty,  and  individual  genius  on  taste. 

36.  Heraclitus,  Democritus,  Epicurus,  and  Diogenes. 

37.  The  ages  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  Charles  the  Second,  Queen  Anne,  and 

the  present  age,  considered  in  a  literary  point  of  view. 

38.  Egypt  as  described  by  Herodotus,  Greece  under  Pericles,  the  Augustau 

age  of  Kome,  Spain  under  Isabella,  Italy  in  the  fifteenth  and  six- 
teenth centuries,  and  France  under  Louis  the  Fourteenth. 

39.  Heading,  writing,  observation  of  men  and  manners,  and  the  study  of 

nature,  as  means  of  intellectual  deA^elopment. 

40.  Popular  elections,  a  free  press,  and  general  education. 

41.  The  Roman  ceremonies,  the  system  of  the  Druids,  the  religion  of  the 

Hindoos,  and  the  superstitions  of  the  American  Indians. 

42.  The  literature  and  morals  of  a  country,  as  affected  by  the  efforts  of  in- 

dividual minds,  the  prevailing  religious  faith,  the  established  form  of 
government,  and  the  employment  most  general  among  the  people. 

43.  Actions,  words,  manners,  and  expression  of  countenance,  as  indicative 

of  chai-acter. 

44.  The  poets  of  England,  Spain,  France,  and  Italy. 

45.  The  military  character  of  Napoleon,  Washington,  Wellington,  Freder 

ick  the  Great,  and  Charles  the  Twelfth. 

46.  The  ages  of  Augustus,  Lorenzo  de  Medicis,  Louis  the  Fourteenth,  and 

Queen  Anne. 

47.  The  religious  institutions  of  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Eome. 

48.  Politics,  war,  literature,  and  science,  as.  a  field  for  the  exercise  of 

talents. 

49.  Astronomy,  Anatomy,  the  instinct  of  animals,  and  the  moral  and  intel 

lectual  nature  of  man,  as  affording  proof  of  an  intelligent  Creator. 
.50.  History,  biography,  and  fiction. 

51.  The  evils  of  a  life  of  solitude,  of  fashion,  of  business,  and  of  public 

office. 

52.  On  classical  learning,  the  study  of  mathematics,  and  of  the  science  of 

the  human  mind,  as  contributing  to  intellectual  cultui'e. 

53.  On  the  operation  of  climate  on  the  moral,  intellectual,  and  mihtary 

character. 

54.  On  the  power  of  the  oriental,  Gothic,  and  classical  superstitions,  to  af 

feet  the  imagination  and  the  feelings. 

55.  On  pastoral,  epic,  and  dramatic  poetry.  * 

56.  On  the  rank  and  value  of  the  mental  endowments  of  Shakspeare,  Scott, 

Locke,  Newton,  and  the  Earl  of  Chatham. 

57.  Roman,  Grecian,  and  Egyptian  remains. 

58.  On  the  influence  of  spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  winter  upon  the 

thoughts,  feelings,  and  imagination. 

59.  Britain," France,  Italy,  and  Greece,  as  interesting  to  an  American  trav 

eller. 

60.  On  the  pleasures  of  the  antiquary,  the  traveller,  the  literary  recluse, 

and  the  man  of  business. 

61.  On  the  beneficial  effects  of  mechanics,  chemistry,  astronomy,  and  agri 

culture. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  407 

On  the  influence  of  peace  upon  the  condition  of  the  agriculturistj  the 
manufacturer,  the  merchant,  and  the  professional  man. 
b3.  On  the  views  of  life  taken  by  Democritus,  Heraclitus,  Diogenes,  and 
Zeno. 

64.  On  the  tendency  of  poetry,  history,  and  ethical  science,  to  promote  im- 
provement in  virtue. 

35.  On  the  influence  on  personal  happiness,  of  natural  temper,  cultivated 
taste,  external  condition,  and  social  intercourse. 

66.  On  novelty,  sublimity,  beauty,  and  harmony,  as  sources  of  gratification. 

67.  Ancient  ethics,  considered  as  pictures  of  manners,  as  proofs  of  genius, 

or  as  sources  of  entertainment. 

68.  The  union  which  a  harmony  of  motive  produces  between  men  of  dif- 

ferent pursuits,  and  that  which  results  merely  from  a  similarity  of 
action. 

69.  The  respective  claims  of  poetry,  painting,  architecture,  and  sculpture, 

as  means  of  refinement  of  taste. 

70.  Personal  memoirs  and  formal  histories,  as  illustrations  of  national  pro 

gress. 

71.  An  old  and  a  new  country,  as  fields  for  enterprise. 

72.  The  superiority  of  conscience  to  human  laws. 

73.  Ancient  and  modern  notions  of  liberty. 

74.  The  scientific  traveller  and  the  missionary. 

75.  A  profound  philosophy  and  a  wide  observation  of  men,  as  elements  of 

a  statesman. 

76.  The  pastoral  and  the  hunter's  life. 

77.  The  war  spirit  in  repubUcs  and  in  monarchies. 

78.  Modern  explorations  in  Africa  and  America. 

79.  The  influence  of  devotion  to  the  person  of  th'e  Sovereign  in  monarchies, 

and  to  that  of  a  popular  favorite  in  republics. 
SO.  Explorations  by  sea  and  by  land. 

81.  The  study  of  grammer,  logic,  and  the  mathamatics,  as  contributing  to 

the  development  of  the  intellectual  powers. 
62.  Personal  beauty,  elevation  of  rank,  and  the  possession  of  riches,  as 

passports  in  society. 

83.  The  animal,  the  mineral,  and  the  vegetable  kingdoms,  as  fields  of  sci 

entific  discovery. 

84.  The  pulpit,  the  press,  and  the  school  room,  as  efficient  agents  on  the 

morals  of  a  people. 

85.  The  horse,  the  cow,  and  the  sheep,  as  contributing  to  the  comfort  and 

convenience  of  mankind. 

86.  The  expectation  of  reward  and  the  fear  of  punishment,  as  affecting  a 

moral  agent.  , 

87.  The  pursuits  of  agriculture,  the  profession  of  arm?,  the  business  of 

trade,  and  the  labors  of  the  mechanic,  as  afiecting  the  taste  and 
morals  of  a  people. 

88.  Color,  form,  and  size,  as  elements  of  physical  beauty 

69.  Quickness  of  perception,  retentiveness  of  memory,  and  ploddino-  per 
severance,  as  contributing  to  mental  advancement.  ° 

90.  The  six  follies  of  science.    The  quadrature  of  the  circle  ;  the  multipii 

cation  of  the  cube;  perpetual  motion;  the  philosophy's  et/me 
magic  ;  and  judicial  astrology. 

91.  Skepticism  and  credulity  compared  as  obstacles  to  intelJ 'xs'.r  ^.1  'm 

provement. 

92.  Poetry  and  history  considered  as  sources  of  amusement. 


408 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


SUBJECTS  FOR  COLLOQUYS,  OR  COLLOQUIAL  DISCUSSIONS- 

1.  Attachment  to  party  as  a  ground  of  action,  for  an  upright  politician. 

2.  On  the  defects  and  advantages  of  history,  as  affording  a  knowledge  of 

the  motives  and  actions  of  individuals,  and  of  the  character  of  hu 
man  nature. 

3.  Dn  the  good-and  bad  effects  of  emulation. 

4.  On  the  moral  influence  of  the  Christian  Sabbath. 

5.  On  the  influence  of  fashion  on  the  judgment  of  right  and  wrong. 

6.  On  the  influence  of  the  multiplicity  of  books,  on  the  interests  of  htera 

ture  and  science. 

7.  Deference  to  great  names  in  philosophy,  and  to  high  rank  in  the  social 

state. 

8.  The  enthusiast  and  the  matter  of  fact  man. 

9.  On  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  resulting  to  a  scholar,  from  fre 

quent  intercourse  with  mixed  society. 

10.  On  the  effects  of  literary  reviews,  as  at  present  conducted. 

11.  On  the  comparative  prevalence  and  strength  of  the  principles  of  loyal 

ty  and  independence  in  man. 

12.  On  the  character  of  ancient  and  modem  patriotism. 

13.  Of  establishing  a  University  in  the  country  or  in  a  city. 

14.  Foreign  travellers  in  the  United  States. 

15.  On  the  different  views,  which  literary  men  take  of  the  world  at  their 

first  entrance  upon  it. 
1.6.  The  difference  of  manners  in  Eome  and  in  modern  civilized  states. 

17.  On  active  profession,  as  injuring  or  assisting  the  efforts  of  a  literary 

man. 

18.  The  comparative  influence  of  governments  and  of  individuals,  in  effect 

ing  great  public  improvements. 

19.  The  literary  influence  of  a  reading  public. 

20.  The  views  taken  of  a  nation,  by  itself  and  others. 

21.  The  moral  effects  of  public,  and  of  domestic  amusements. 

22.  The  effects  of  controversy  on  partisans,  and  on  the  public. 

23.  The  influence  of  the  Roman  Gladiatorial  shows,  and  of  the  Greek 

games,  on  the  character  of  the  people. 

24.  The  comparative  effects  of  literature  and  of  science,  on  the  progress 

of  civilization. 

25.  The  effect  which  acquaintance  with  foreign  languages  has  upon  the 

originality  of  a  nation's  literature. 

26.  The  comparati-^e  influence  of  individuals  and  learned  societies  in  fonn 

ing  the  literary  character  of  a  nation. 

27.  The  influence  of  the  multiplication  of  books  upon  literature. 

28.  The  study  of  nature,  and  of  man,  as  affording  a  proper  field  for  the 

poet. 

29.  The  standard  of  taste. 

J,  30.  The  novels  of  Fielding,  Richardson,  and  the  author  of  Waverley. 
'31.  The  comparative  importance  of  the  expeditions  to  ascertain  the  North 
West  passage,  and  the  source  of  the  Niger. 

32.  Intellectual,  moral,  and  physical  education. 

33.  The  prospects  of  Christianity  in  India. 

34.  The  satires  of  Horace  and  Juvenal. 

35.  Hc-w  far  the  right  should  be  controlled  by  the  expedient. 

36.  On  the  comparative  value  of  contemporaneous  and  posthumous  fame 

37.  On  the  evils  of  anarchy,  and -of  an  arbitrary  government. 

38.  DiLgent  observation  of  facts  and  philosophical  use  of  them. 

39.  On  superstition  and  skepticism. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  409 

40.  The  self-devoticn  of  the  Christian  mart}^  and  the  Roman  patriot. 

41.  Poets  and  novelists  of  the  poor. 

42.  Strafford  and  Sir  Henry  Vane  the  Younger. 

43.  The  idea  of  tlie  beautiful,  as  developed  in  Grecian  literature  and  art. 

44.  The  influence  of  the  association  of  ideas  on  our  practical  operations. 

45.  The  moral  and  intellectual  influence  of  the  principle  of  emulation,  on 

systems  of  education.  . 

46.  Entertaining  mysteries,  novels  of  real  life,  and  romantic  or  supematu 

ral  fictions,  as  affording  similar  species  of  delight. 
-47.  The  Sacred  and  Profane  poets. 
48  Milton  and  Isaiah. 

49.  Johnson  and  St.  Paul. 

50.  Moore  and  David. 

61.  Addison  and  St.  John. 

52.  Byron  and  Ezekiel. 

53.  Hume  and  Moses. 

SUBJECTS  FOR  FORENSIC  DISPUTATIONS. 

1.  Whether  the  increased  facilities  of  intercourse  between  Europe  and  the 

United  States  be  favorable  to  this  country. 

2.  Whether  more  evil  or  good  is  to  be  expected  from  the  disposition  man 

ifested,  at  the  present  day,  to  try  existing  institutions  by  first  prin 
ciples. 

3.  Whether  voting  by  ballot  should  be  introduced  into  all  elective  and  Ift 

gislative  proceedings. 

4.  Whether  forms  of  government  exert  any  important  influence  on  the 

growth  and  character  of  national  literature. 

5.  Whether  any  attempt  should  be  made  td  preserve  severity  of  manners 

in  a  modem  republic. 

6.  Ought  Congress  to  pass  an  international  copy-right  law. 

7.  Is  there  reason  to  think  that  the  public  mind  will  ever  be  more  settled 

than  at  present,  about  the  character  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 

8.  Whether  more  good  than  evil  has  restated  to  the  world,  from  the  life 

and  religion  of  Mahomet. 

9.  Whether  popular  superstitions,  or  enlightened  opinions,  be  most  favor 

able  to  the  growth  of  poetical  literature. 

10.  Whether  the  literature  of  America  be  injured  by  that  of  modern  foreign 

countries. 

11.  Whether  a  want  of  reverence  be  justly  chargeable  on  our  age  and 

country. 

12.  Whether  the  diversities  of  individual  character  be  owing  more  to  phys- 

ical, than  to  moral  causes. 

13.  Whether  the  advancement  of  civil  liberty  be  more  indebted  to  intellect- 

ual culture,  than  to  physical  suffering. 

14.  Whether  the  fine  or  the  useful  arts  afford  the  better  field  for  the  display 

of  originality. 

15.  Whether  prosperity  and  increase  of  wealth  have  a  favorable  influence 

upon  the  manners  and  morals  of  a  people. 

16.  Whether  modern  facilities  of  testing  literary  efforts  by  popular  opinion, 

be  unfavorable  to  the  production  of  great  works. 

17.  Whether  the  choice  of  a  representative  should  be  restricted  to  the  in 

habitants  af  the  town  or  district  repjresented. 

18.  Whether  the  sum  of  human  happiness  on  earth  be  greater,  by  a  succes 

sion  of  generations,  than  it  would  have  been  by  orie  continued  race ; 
the  number  of  inhabitants  being  the  same. 

19.  Whether,  in  a  public  seminary,  the  course  of  study  established  bv  rule 

should  be  the  same  for  all. 
20-  Do  savage  nations  possess  a  full  right  to  tiie  soU. 

as 


410  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

il  Whether  a  State  have  a  right  to  recede  from  the  Union. 
^   Whether,  in  times  of  political  discussion,  it  is  the  duty  of  every  cltizeq 
to  declare  his  opinion,  and  attach  himself  to  some  party. 

23  Whether  there  were  greater  facilities,  in  ancient  times,  for  an  individual 

acquiring  influence,  than  there  are  now. 

24  Whether  the  inequalities  of  our  social  condition  be  favorable  to  tha 

progress  of  knowledge. 

25.  Is  it  expedient  to  make  colonies  of  convtcts. 

26.  Is  .the  cause  of  despotism  strengthened  by  the  eztermination  of  the 

Poles. 

27.  Whether  the  inequalities  of  genius  in  different  countries  be  owing  tc 

moral  causes. 

28.  Whether  inflicting  capital  punishments  pubHcly  has  any  tendency  to  di 

minish  crime. 

29.  Whether  the  personal  dependence,  incident  to  a  minute  division  of 

labor  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  be  dangerous  to  our  free  institutions. 
^0.  Whether  the  influences  which  tend  to  perpetuate,  be  stronger  than  those 
which  tend  to  dissolve,  the  union  of  the  United  States. 

31 .  Whether  we  should  abstain  from  publishing  the  truth,  from  a  fear  lest 

the  world  be  not  prepared  to  receive  it. 

32.  Whether  the  popularity  of  a  literary  work  is  to  be  received  as  an  evl 

dence  of  its  real  merits. 

33.  Is  there  any  objection  to  a  man's  proposing  himself  for  public  office, 

and  using  means  to  obtain  it. 

34.  Does  proseljj-tism  favor  the  cause  of  truth. 

35.  Whether  privateering  be  incident  to  the  right  of  war. 

36.  Whether  a  written  constitution  be  efficacious  in  securing  civil  liberty. 

37.  Whether  the  progress  of  knowledge  lessen  the  estimation  of  the  fine 

arts. 

38.  Whether  the  exclusion  of  foreign  articles,  to  encourage  domestic  man 

ufactures,  be  conducive  to  public  wealth. 

39.  Whether  the  world  be  advancing  in  moral  improvement. 

40.  Whether  the  progress  of  civilization  diminish  the  love  of  martial  glory. 

41.  Whether  personal  interest  in  a  subject  of  investigation  be  favorable  to 

the  discovery  of  truth. 

42.  Whether  the  power  of  eloquence  be  diminished  by  the  progress  of  lit- 

erature and  science. 

43.  Whether  the  prevalence  of  despotism  in  Asia  be  occasioned  principally 

by  physical  causes. 

44.  Whether  the  present  circumstances  of  Europe  furnish  reason  to  expect 

an  essential  amelioration  of  human  affairs. 

45.  Do  facts,  or  fiction,  contribute  most  to  mental  enjoyment. 

46.  Whether  writers  of  fiction  be  morally  responsible  for  unchaste  and  pro 

fane  language  in  their  productions. 

47.  The  policy  of  requiring  property  qualifications  for  office. 

48.  Ought  capital  punishments  to  be  inflicted  in  time  of  peace. 

49.  Does  the  system  of  modern  warfare  indicate  any  advancement  in  civiJ 

izati-on. 

50.  Is  the  existence  of  two  great  political  parties  in  olir  country  desirable. 

51.  Has  her  union  with  England  been  detrimental  to  Ireland. 

SUBJECTS  FOE  DELIBEKATIVE,  POLITICAL,  CRITICAL,  PHILO 
SOPHICAL,  AND  LITERARY  DISCUSSIONS,  DISQUISITIONS 
INQUIRIES,  &C. 

1.  On  the  right  of  legislative  bodies  to  provide  by  law  for  the  support  oJ 

rehgion.    (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

2.  The  character  of  a  philosophical  historian.  (Philosophical  Disquisition.) 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


411 


3.  The  effect  of  pi-evailing  pliilosophical  views  on  the  style  of  elegant  liter 

ature.  (Disquisition.) 

4.  On  the  alleged  degeneracy  of  animals  and  vegetables  in  America. 

(Philosophical  Discussion.) 

5.  Whether  works  of  imagination  should  be  designed  to  produce  a  specific 

moral  effect.    (Literary  Discussion.) 

6.  The  English  styles  that  have  attracted  the  most  imitators.  (Literary 

Disquisition."^) 
"  Mahomet  All."    (Political  Disquisition.) 

8.  Whether  national  literature  is  to  be  regarded  more  as  a  cause  or  a  con 

sequence  of  nation'al  refinement.    (I)eliberative  Discussion.) 

9.  Originality  in  literature,  as  affected  by  sound  criticism.  (Literary  Dis 

quisition, 

10.  The  influence  of  superstition  on  science  and  literature.  (Philosophical 
Disquisition.) 

IL  On  the  materiahty  of  light.    (Philosophical  Disputation.) 

12.  Is  the  preservation  of  the  balance  of  power  a  justifiable  cause  of  war. 

(Deliberative  Discussion.) 

13.  On  the  causes  of  the  variety  of  complexion  and  figure  in  the  human 

species.    (Philosophical  Disputation.) 

14.  On  the  policy  of  encouraging  manufacturing  establishments  in  the 

United  States.    (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

15.  The  merits  of  geological  systems.  (Disquisition.) 

16.  The  comparative  interest  and  importance  of  Grecian  and  Eoman  his- 

tory.   (Literary  Discussion.) 

17.  The  causes  of  the  present  pecuniary  distresses  of  the  commercial  world, 

(Disquisition.) 

18.  The  effects  of  the  crusades.    (Literary  Inquiry.) 

19.  Changes  in  Enghsh  style,  since  the  time  of  Milton.    (Literary  Discus 

sion.) 

iO.  Comparative  advantages  of  politics  and  literature  as  professions  m  this 
country.    (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

21.  The  influence  of  the  dramatic  writers  on  the  age  of  Elizabeth  and 

Charles  the  Second.    (Literary  Discussion.) 

22.  The  restoration  of  Greece  to  political  independence.  (Deliberative  Dis 

cussion.) 

23.  The  literary  influence  of  the  early  English  prose  writers.  (Literary 

Disquisition.) 

24.  Of  presenting  literature  and  science  in  popular  forms.   (Literary  Diss 

cussion.) 

25.  Manual  and  intellectual  labor.    (Philosophical  Discussion.) 

26.  Will  the  present  proposed  parliamentary  reform  endanger  the  monarch 

ical  and  aristocratical  portion  of  the  British  constitution.  (Deliber 
ative  Discussion.) 

-27.  Importance  of  independent  criticism  to  the  growth  of  national  literature 
(Literary  Disquisition.) 

28.  Causes  of  ill  health  in  hterary  men.    (Philosophical  Disquisition.) 

29.  Th®  influence  of  superstition  on  science  and  literature.  (Philosophica. 

Discussion.) 

30.  English  biography  and  French  memoirs.    (Literary  Discussion.) 

31.  Are  political  improvements  best  effected  by  rulers,  or  the  people 

(Deliberative  Discussion.) 

32.  The  influence  of  ancient  art  on  ancient  literature.    (Literary  DLsquis 

ition.) 

33.  The  poet  of  an  early  age,  and  of  a  civilized  one.  (Literary  Discussion. 

34.  Comparative  utility  of  the  moral  and  physical  sciences,  in  the  presen 

age.    (Philosophical  Discussion.) 

35.  On  what  does  the  security  of  our  institutions  depend  ?    (Political  Dis 

quisition.) 


412  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

36.  Tne  exf  ediency  of  intervention  by  one  nation  in  the  civil  and  public 

contests  of  others.    (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

37.  The  evils  and  benefits  of  laige  books.    (Litex-ary  Discussion.) 

38.  Skepticism  and  love  of  truth,  as  indications  of  mental  character  and 

vigor.    (Philosophical  Discussion.) 

39.  Tendency  of  free  institutions  to  bring  first  principles  into  question. 

(Deliberative  Discussion.) 

40.  The  influence  of  Lord  Bacon's  writings  on  the  progress  of  knowledge. 

(Philosophical  Discussion.) 

41.  An  author's  writing  many  books,  or  restiisg  his  fame  on  a  few.  (Liter 

ary  Discussion.) 

42.  Universal  suffrage.    (Political  Disquisition.) 

43.  The  resources  and  encouragements  of  elegant  literature  in  the  Old  and 

New  World.    (Literary  Discussion.) 

44.  The  comparative  power  of  moral  and  physical  causes  in  forming  the 

American  character.   (Philosophical  Discussion.) 

45.  Are  short  terms  of  political  office  desirable  ?  (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

46.  Modem  imitation  of  the  ancient  Greek  tragedy.  (Literary  Disquisition.) 

47.  The  real  or  supposed  decline  of  science,  at  the  present  day.  (Philos 

ophical  Disquisition.) 
4S.  English  novels  in  the  reigns  of  George  the  Second  and  George  the 
Third.    (Literary  Discussion.) 

49.  The  expediency  of  making  authorship  a  profession.  (Philosophical 

Discussion.) 

50.  Whether  patriotism  was  inculcated  to  excesss  in  the  ancient  republics. 

(Deliberative  Discussion.) 

51.  The  life  and  services  of  Linnseus.    (Philosophical  Disquisition.) 

52.  The  observance  of  poetical  justice  in  fi'ctitious  writings.  (Literary  Dis 

quisition.) 

53.  Greek  and  Eoman  comeuies.    (Critical  Disquisition.) 

54.  Education  as  aiming  to  develope  all  the  faculties  equally,  or  to  foster 

individual  peculiarities  of  taste  and  intellect.    (Philosophical  Discus- 
sion.) 

55.  Utility  of  chemical  knowledge  to  professional  men.  (Philosophical 

Disquisition.) 

56.  The  expediency  of  religious  establishments  under  any  form  of  civil 

goverment.    (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

57.  On  the  practicability  of  reaching  the  North  Pole,  and  the  advantages 

which  would  attend  such  an  expedition.  (Philosophical  Disputation.) 

58.  Should  the  right  of  suffrage  in  any  case  depend  upon  different  prin- 

ciples, as  it  respects  different  classes  or  individuals  in  the  same 
country.    ''Peliberative  Discussion.) 
.  59.  On  the  probajiihty  of  prolonging  the  term  of  human  life,  by  the  aid  of  ^ 
physical  or  snoral  causes.    (Philosophical  Discussion.) 
60.  Upon  the  Huttonian  and  Wemerian  theories  of  the  earth.  (Philosoph 
ical  Disputation.) 

6L  On  the  use  of  heathen  mythology  in  modem  poetry.   (Literary  Discus 
sion.) 

62.  On  the  tendency  of  a  legal  provision  for  the  support  of  the  poor,  t« 

diminish  human  misery.    (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

63.  The  moral  tendency  of  the  natural  sciences.    (Philosophical  Discus 

sion.) 

64.  The  merits  of  the  histories  of  Hume  and  Lingard.   (Literary  Discus 

sion.) 

65.  Liberal  principles_,  as  affecting  the  strength  of  a  government.  (Delib- 

erative Discussion.) 

66.  Political  patronage  in  Eepublics.    (Political  Disquisitions.) 

67.  The  poet  of  an  early,  and  of  a  civilized  age.   (Literary  Discussion ;  see 

No.  33.) 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  413 

6y.  Are  mental  resources  and  moral  energy  most  developed  in  unpnncipled 
men  ?    (Philosophical  Discussion.) 

69.  Whether  heat  have  an  independent  existence.    (Philosophical  Dispu 

tations.) 

70.  On  the  probable  disposition  and  mutual  relation  of  the  fixed  stars. 

71.  On  the  alleged  improvement  in  the  art  of  composition  since  the  age  of 

Queen  Anne. 

72.  On  the  expediency  of  a  national  university.  (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

73.  Whether  the  climate  of  any  country  have  undergone  any  permanent 

change.    (Philosophical  Disputation.) 

74.  Whether  extensiveness  of  territory  be  favorable  to  the  preservation  oi 

a  republican  form  of  government. 

75.  What  reasons  are  there  for  not  expecting  another  great  epic  poem. 

(Literary  Inquiry.)-, 

76.  The  probability  of  the  study  of  the  dead  languages  always  being  essen 

tial  to  a  liberal  education. 

77.  Why  are  men  pleased  with  imitation,  and  disgusted  with  mimicry  ? 

78.  What  grounds  are  there  distinct  from  revelation,  to  believe  in  the  im 

mortaHty  of  the  soul  ? 

79.  On  the  comparative  utility  of  the  moral  and  physical  sciences,  in  the 

United  States. 

80.  The  views  entertained  of  the  duties  and  objects  of  public  offices  by  the 

incumbents. 

81.  The  use  of  a  diversity  of  languages. 

82.  The  amount  and  character  of  crime  in  an  age  of  barbarism,  and  an  age 

of  laws. 

83.  An  inquiry  into  the  cause  of  the  growth  of  the  power  of  ancient  Kome. 

The  favoring  circumstances,  —  character  of  the  people,  —  local  situa 
tion,  —  early  institutions  of  the  republic,  —  condition  of  other  states. 

84.  The  use  of  ballads  and  popular  songs  in  a  rude  and  in  a  civilized  age. 

85.  The  assistance  derived  from  friends,  party,  and  wealth,  in  a  democracy ; 

and  from  ancestry,  court  favor,  and  title,  in  a  despotism. 

86.  The  favorite  of  nature,  and  the  creature  of  art. 

87.  The  connexion  of  religious  celebrations  with  public  festivities,  as  seen 

both  in  Pagan  and  Christian  countries. 

88.  Comparison  of  Horace's  reasons  for  abandoning  irreligion,  (See  Book  1st, 

Ode  28th,  Parens  Deorum,)  with  those  that  might  affect  a  modern 
skeptic. 

89.  Comparison  of  Hume  with  Sallust  in  the  delineation  of  character. 

90.  Sketches  of  character,  as  given  by  the  historian,  with  Shakspeare's  (or 

the  dramatist's)  mode  of  acquainting  us  with  men. 

91.  Spoken  and  written  language,  as  deceptive  or  inefficient  modes  of  com- 

munication. {Note.  We  are  often  disappointed  in  reading,  what  we 
much  admired  in  hearing: 
P2.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  negative  character.  ( Note.  "  De- 
ficiency of  character  is  oftoner  taken  for  positive  perfection ;  want  of 
ardor  is  exalted  into  self-command  and  superior  prudence.  The  cola 
and  indifferent  never  offend  by  zealous  interference,  and  never  get 
into  difficulties.") 

93.  The  causes  which  have  checked  progress,  or  improvement  in  moral  and 

physical  science,  or  in  arts  and  government. 
M.  The  triumphs  of  the  soldier  and  the  philosopher,  as  of  Alexander  and 

Aristotle,  Bonaparte  and  Cuvier. 

95.  Elevation  of  rank,  as  affecting  turpitude  of  character. 

96.  The  influence  of  successive  generations,  instead  of  one  permanent  race, 

on  human  improvement. 

97.  The  English  language  as  it  is  spoken,  and  as  it  is  written. 

98.  Of  what  classes  of  pleasure  and  gratification  are  those  unfortunate 

beings  susceptible,  who  are  destitute  of  the  senses  of  sight  and  hear 
ing,  as  weU  as  the  faculty  €>f  ^Sech  ? 

35* 


414 


AIDS  TO  PmGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


IC5 


.nn"  Sr^^^  i^^^*'        speech,  the  greater  deprivation  ? 

100.  Of  inakuig-  changes  in  the  political  constitution  of  free  i;tates,  easy 

(Deliberative  Discussion.)  ' 

101.  The  history  of  Astronomy.  (Disquisition.) 

102.  The  grounds  for  thinking  that  the  Malaria  will  eventually  depopulate 

(Philosophical  Disputation.)  ^  ^ 

103.  The  effects  on  Americaii  literature,  of  a  community  of  language  with 
rrf^°^^"^-    (Literary  Discussion.)  ^ 

104.  The  comparative  advantages  of  Western  Africa  and  Hay ti,  for  colo- 
nizing free  blacks.    (Deliberative  Discussion.) 

A  history  of  English  Literature,  in  which  some  notice  maybe  taken  of 
the  origin  and  progress  of  the  language,  the  influx  of  different  terms  : 
the  pecuhar  styles  which  from  age  to  age  have  been  predominant 
the  Avriters  who  have  contributed  to  vary,  and  those  who  have  as- 
sisted in  hxiiig  its  present  form,  structure  and  character :  the  influence 
of  the  mtroduction  of  scientific  terms, -the  Latin  and  Greek  style, 
.he  trench  style  ;^  the  Saxon  pecuHarities,  —  an  enumeration  of  the 
writers  who  may  be  considered  as  of  standard  authority,  -  the  poets 
the  historians,  — the  essayists,  — the  moral,  metaphysical,  religious 
philological,  philosophical  and  scientific  writers,! the  copioufness, 
precision,  force,  and  elegance  of  the  language;  'the  prospects  of  its 
alteration  extinction,_or  umversal  preva]lnce,-the  character,  style! 
beauties,  defects  and  influence  of  the  writings  of  the  respective  dis- 
tinguished authors  of  each  age, -the  subjects  which  they  re  ate  d 
and  the  mterest  felt  by  the%ivilized  worid  in  generKi  these 
subjects  respectively.  [These  hints  will  probably  furnish  suS 
S'E^gSIhtSX^^^    clisquisitions,  &c.,  connected  wito  the  his'tory 


SUBJECTS  FOK  POEMS  IN  ENGLISH,  LATIN,  GREEK,  &C. 

1.  Numina  Veterum,  or  the  Ancient  Divinities. 

2.  Nature,  the  source  of  poetic  inspiration. 

3.  On  the  discovery  of  Herculaneum.  (Greek.) 

4.  On  the  pleasures  and  pains  of  the  studeflt. 
■  5.  On  the  pursuit  of  fame. 

6.  Ode  to  fancy. 

7.  Eloquence. 

8.  Anticipation. 

9.  A  vision  of  ambition. 

10.  The  missionary. 

11.  Ad  spem.    (Latin.)    To  hope. 

12.  Novelty.    (Greek.)  mpmoTurog. 

13.  Ad  pacem.  (Latin.) 

14.  Contemplation. 

15.  On  fame. 

16.  On  pank  and  titles. 

17.  On  civil  liberty. 

18.  Refinement. 


SUBJECTS  FOR  DISSERTATIONS. 

1.  On  diversity  of  talents  among  mankind. 

2.  On  the  dependence  of  the  mental  operations  on  the  condition  of  the 

corporeal  frame. 

3.  On  the  causes  of  the  superiority  of  character  in  modern  Europe. 

4.  On  the  causes,  which,  independently  of  their  merit,  have  contributed  to 

elevate  the  ancient  olassids. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


415 


5.  Miltoa  and  Homer  contrasted  and  compared. 

0.  On  the  literatm-e  of  the  Romans,  as  affected  by  their  government,  re 

ligion,  and  state  of  society. 
"7.  The  influence  of  the  fine  arts  upon  religion. 

8.  The  interest  attached  to  places  where  distinguished  persons  have  dwelt, 

or  which  poets  Iiave  commemorated. 

9.  The  importance  of  a  popular  history,  in  which  the  actions  of  men  shall 

be  represented  according  to  the  pi'inciples  of  the  Christian  religion. 

10.  The  peculiar  facilities,  in  modern  times,  for  effecting  great  purposes  in 

government  and  in  religion. 

11.  A  comparison  of  the  domestic  life  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 

and  that  of  our  own  countrymen. 

12.  On  the  influence  of  Christianity  in  producing  the  moral  and  intellectual 

revival  of  Europe,  after  the  dark  ages. 

13.  On  the  utility  of  the  study  of  political  economy,  considered  in  relation 

to  our  own  country. 

14.  On  the  necessity  of  public  and  private  patronage,  to  the  advancement 

of  literature  m  our  country. 

15.  The  geological  age  of  the  world. 

16.  Agitation,  as  a  means  of  effecting  reform. 

17.  The  conflict  of  duties. 

18.  On  the  benefit  accruing  to  an  individal  from  a  knowledge  of  the  physi 

cal  sciences. 

19.  On  Christianity,  as  aflfecting  our  domestic  habits. 

20.  Severity  of  manners  in  a  republic. 

21.  Heaven  lies  about  us  in  our  infancy. 

22.  The  influence  of  fashion  on  our  moral  judgments. 

23.  The  power  of  the  law  in  free  states. 

24.  The  character  of  Chief  Justice  Marshall. 

25.  Distinctions  of  rank  in  the  United  States. 

26.  The  encouragement  to  young  men  to  educate  themselves,  exclusively 

or  chiefly  for  high  political  offices. 

27.  Originality  of  thought  supposed  to  be  necessarily  lessened  as  the  world 

grows  older. 

28.  Modes  of  publishing,  circulating,  and  perpetuating  literary  works  in 

different  ages  and  coimtries. 

29.  Lafayette. 

30.  The  irresponsibleness  of  anonymous  vn-itings. 

31.  The  respect  due  from  conquerors  to  works  of  art. 

32.  The  effect  of  maritime  enterprises  on  the  intellectual  character  of  a 

nation. 

33.  The  field  opened  for  men  of  enterprise  in  the  "West. 

34.  Respect  for  public  monuments,  whether  triumphal  or  for  the  dead. 

35.  Character  and  writings  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh. 

36.  Literary  character  of  our  first  settlers. 

37.  The  infirmities  of  men  of  genius. 

38.  The  prospects  of  genuine  liberty  in  Europe. 

39.  The  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  institution  of  Lyceums. 

40.  The  benefit  accruing  to  an  individual  from  a  knowledge  of  the  exaci 

sciences.    (See  No.  18.) 

41.  Prospects  of  young  men  in  the  different  learned  professions- 

42.  The  character  of  Socrates. 

43.  Long  Life. 

44.  On  the  charge  of  ingratitude  made  against  republics. 

45.  The  effect  of  the  universal  diffusion  of  knowledge  on  the  well-being  o( 

society. 

46.  The  domestic  life  of  the  Romans. 

47.  The  domestic  hfe     the  Greelcs. 

4S.  The  docMfltic  life  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 


416  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


S*       imagination  and  sensibility,  as  affected  by  the  age  of  the  individual, 

50.  Of  making  changes  in  an  author's  works  to  adapt  them  to  modem  tastes. 

51.  On  the  reciprocal  influence  of  literature  and  morals. 

52.  On  simplicity  and  ornament  in  writing. 

53.  Characteristic  defects  of  modern  English  poetry. 

54.  The  effects  of  seclusion  and  of  society  upon  the  literary  character. 

55.  Public  opinion,  as  a  standard  of  right. 

56.  The  moral  power  of  sympathy. 

57.  The  different  views  which  literary  men  take  of  the  world,  at  their  first 

entrance  upon  it.    (See  Colloquy,  No.  15.) 

58.  The  view  which  a  gi-eat  mind  takes  of  its  own  productions. 

59.  The  principal  charges  preferred  against  the  present  age,  by  philosophera 

and  philanthropists. 

60.  Chancer  and  his  age. 

61.  Visits  to  remarkable  places. 

62.  The  contributions  of  oratory  to  literature. 

63.  The  influence  of  the  m-ultiplication  of  books  upon  literature. 

64.  The  effect  of  belief  in  immortality  upon  literature. 

65.  The  restraints  imposed,  in  modern  times,  on  the  warlike  spirit. 

66.  The  lyric  poetry  of  Scotland. 

67.  The  fate  of  reformers. 

68.  The  dread  of  the  prevalence  of  skepticism. 

69.  Ages  of  action  and  of  reflection. 

70.  The  moral  tendency  of  the  principles  of  Malthus. 

71.  The  education  of  the  senses. 

72.  On  the  acquisition  and  use  of  intellectual  power. 

73.  The  literary  character  of  the  sacred  Scriptures. 

SUBJECTS    FOR    ORATIONS    IN    ENGLISH,    FRENCH,  LATIN, 
GREEK,  SPANISH,  HEBREW,  &C.,  ESSAYS,  &C. 

1.  The  utilitarian  system  of  education. 

2.  Self  sacrifice. 

3.  Philanthropy. 

4.  On  the  names  of  Deity,  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  (Hebrew.) 

5.  On  the  old  age  of  the  scholar. 

6.  On  the  importance  of  classical  literature. 

7.  On  the  durability  of  our  political  institutions. 

8  The  effect  of  miracles  on  the  character  of  the  Jews.  (Hebrew.) 

9.  On  the  progress  of  the  exact  sciences  in  France  and  England.  (Essay.) 

10.  On  the  progress  of  literature.  (Greek.) 

11.  On  the  Roman  character  and  institutions.  (Latin.) 

12.  On  the  dignity  and  utiUty  of  the  philosophy  of  the  human  mind. 

13.  The  aspect  of  revolutions  on  the  advancement  of  the  mind 

14.  On  the  decline  of  poetry. 

15.  On  the  cultivation  of  the  taste  and  imagination 

16.  On  the  fallacy  of  history. 

17.  On  literary  evils. 

18.  On  the  influence  of  philosophy  on  Christianity. 

19.  On  the  influence  of  the  arts  and  sciences  on  civil  liberty. 

20.  On  the  different  styles  of  eloquence  prevailing  at  different  periods  <rf 

society. 

21.  Public  opinion. 

22.  The  spirit  which  should  accompany  our  republican  institntiona. 

23.  Public  station. 

24.  A  salutary  oration. 

25.  A  valedictory  oration. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  417 

^*  ^Spanish^?"^^^^^"^^  "^^^^       Spanish  language  and  Hterature.  (In 

27.  On  the  character  of  Byron. 

28.  On  the  progress  of  refinement. 

29.  On  the  condition  and  prospects  of  the  American  people 

30.  On  the  sublimity  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

''c'ompa^InS  ' 

32.  On  American  feeling. 

33.  On  national  eloquence. 

34.  The  influence  of  commerce  upon  letters. 

35.  A  modern  canon  of  criticism. 

36.  Supposed  degeneracy  of  the  age. 

37.  No  good  that  is  possible,  but  shall  one  day  be  real. 

38.  Public  recreations. 

39.  Empiricism. 

40.  The  literary  profession. 

41.  Moral  eflfort. 

"'^mJn iUustrium  exemplia.  (Latin.)  Tne  examples  of  illustrious 

43.  Criticism. 

44.  The  Christian  philosophy,  its  political  application. 

45.  Mental  refinement. 

46.  Popularity. 

47.  Decision  of  character,  as  demanded  in  our  day  and  country. 

48.  The  character  of  Lord  Bacon. 

49.  The  diversities  of  character. 

50.  Literary  justice. 

51.  Superstition. 

52.  The  influence  of  speculative  minds. 

53.  American  aristocracy. 

54.  The  value  of  the  political  lessons  left  us  by  the  founders  of  our  free 

mstitutions. 

55.  Enthusiasm. 

56.  De  mortuis  nil  nisi  bonum.    (Latin.)    Speak  no  evil  of  the  dead 
07.  1  he  spmt  of  reform. 

58.  The  spirit  of  ancient  and  modern  education. ' 

59.  The  lot  of  the  portrayer  of  passion. 

60.  The  love  of  truth  —  a  practical  principl. 

61.  The  progress  of  man. 

62.  Radicalism.  < 

63.  Ancient  veneration  for  the  public. 

64.  The  dangers  of  mtolerance  under  a  popular  government. 

expose? ^"^^  *°  ^^^^^        ^^^^^      young  men  in  our  country  are 

66.  The  character  and  prospects  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

67.  Mutation  of  taste. 

68.  Patriotism. 

69.  Every  man  a  debtor  to  his  profession. 

70   Of  living  in  times  of  great  intellectual  excitement. 

diffusion  of  scientific  knowledge  among  the  people. 

72.  The  importance  of  efibrts  and  institutions  for  the  diffusion  of  know 

ledge. 

73.  Early  prejudices. 

74.  The  advancement  of  the  age. 

75.  The  progress  of  human  nature. 

76.  Moral  subHmity. 

77.  Home  —  the  American  home. 

73.  The  permanence  of  literary  fame. 


418 


Alt>S  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


79.  The  claims  of  the  age  on  the  young  men  of  America. 

80.  On  Physiognomy.    (In  Hebrew.) 

81.  Sur  la  "Rdvolution  Francaise.    (French.)    On  the  French  Eevolutioa. 

82.  Ou  decision  of  character. 

83.  On  innovation. 

84.  On  the  restoration  of  Greece. 

85.  Be  institutorum  Americanorum  eventus  et  libertatis  causes  conjuno 

tione.  (Latin.) 

86.  The  middle  ages. 

87.  De  oraculis.  (Latin.) 

88.  The  heroic  character. 

89.  The  duties  of  republican  citizens. 

90.  The  duties  of  an  American  citizen. 

91.  On  republican  institutions  as  affecting  private  character. 

92.  On  imagination  as  affecting  individual  happiness. 
93  On  war. 

94.  De  Eomanas  libertatis  et  eloquentiae  casu.   The  decline  of  Eomaa 

liberty  and  eloquence. 

95.  Views  of  happiness. 

96.  De  Caii  Marii  sevo.    (Latin.)    The  age  of  Gains  Marius. 

97.  Skepticism. 

98.  De  festis  diebus  qui  nostra  in  Universitate  celebrantnr.  (Latin.) 

99.  Modern  patriotism. 

100.  De  Uteris  Latinis. 

101.  The  sacrifices  and  recompense  of  literary  life. 

102.  Quid  de  artibus  ingenuis  in  civitatibus  America  sperandum  sit, 

103.  The  American  literary  character. 

104.  De  Locorum  in  animum  vi. 

105.  Martyrdom. 

106.  Socrates.  (Greek.) 

107.  De  priscorum  diis.    (Latin.)    The  ancient  divinities. 

108.  On  the  reciprocal  influence  of  genius  and  knowledge. 

109.  On  the  revolutionary  spirit  of  modern  times. 

110.  On  the  durabihty  of  the  Federal  Union. 

111.  Present  influences  on  American  hterature. 

112.  The  return  to  Palestine. 

11,3.  De  Graecarum  literarum  studio.  (Latin.) 

114.  De  vitas  in  Universitate  nostra. 

115.  Elements  of  poetry  and  romance  in  America. 

116.  De  philosophise  studio. 

117.  The  pride  of  scholarship. 

118.  The  physical  sciences. 

119  The  present  and  former  condition  of  Greece.  (Greek.) 

120.  De  oratoribus  Americanis.  ■    .  . 

121.  Periodical  literature. 

122.  De  hujus  temporis  indole. 

123.  The  teacher. 

124.  De  eloquentige  studio  in  scholis  nostris  neglect©. 

125.  American  political  influeiaces. 

126.  De  literarum  scholis  nostds. 

127.  The  scholar's  hope. 

128.  De  rebus  preteritis  et  presentibus. 

129.  Pursuit  of  universal  truth. 

130.  Literae  AmericanfB. 

131.  Revolutions  of  literature. 

132.  De  linguEe  Latina3  hoc  tempore  usil. 

133.  The  taking  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls. 

134.  The  progress  of  human  sentiments. 

135.  The  political  prospects  of  Russia. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION.  419 

J?S*  I?®  advantages  of  speaking  in  French  — in  Greek,  &c. 

137.  The  moral  influence  of  science. 

138.  The  prospects  of  America. 

139.  Literary  vanity. 

140.  The  crusades. 

141.  On  artificial  aids  to  memory. 

142.  On  Phrenology. 

143.  On  Mesmerism. 

144.  On  the  proneness  of  genius  to  theorizing. 

145.  On  intellectual  culture. 

146.  On  the  prevalence  of  erroneous  views  of  the  value  of  metaphysical 

'^^drclT^'''^"*'^^'^      ^^'^  ^"^^  ^^^^  pleasures  of  the  domestic 

148.  The  prospects  of  a  universal  language. 
'  149.  On  ancient  and  modern  democracy. 

150.  On  Aristocracy. 

151.  The  futm-e  prospects  of  the  United  States. 


XCIX. 

LIST  OF  WOKKS  CONSULTED  IN  THE  PEEPAEATION  OF 
THIS  VOLUME. 

In  presenting  a  list  of  authorities  which  have  been  consulted  in  the  pre 
paration  ot  this  volume,  the  author  makes  this  general  acknowledgment  — 
that,  as  usefulness,  not  originahty,  has  been  his  aim,  he  has  in  some  in 
f^^ces  copied  verbatim  from  the  pages  of  those  in  whom  he  has  found  any 
thmg  of  value  subservient  to  his  purpose  ;  in  some  he  has  taken  the  liberty 
to  alter  the  phraseology,  and  in  others  entirely  to  remodel  the  principles 
"^J-*^?  I  ^^"^  scattered  throughout  these  authorities.    The  works  to 

which  he  has  been  most  largely  indebted,  are  Booth's  Principles  of  English 
Composition,  Walker's  Teacher's  Asssistant,  Newman's,  Blair's,  Whately's, 
and  Jamieson's  Ehetoric,  and  Jardine's  Principles  of  English  Composition. 
Other  works  from  which  he  has  gleaned  something  of  value,  or  hints  for 
the  improvement  of  what  he  has  elsewhere  gathered,  are  as  follow : 

Pappmgliam's  Rules  of  English  Composition;  Rice's  Composition: 
Careys  Enghsh  Prosody;  Roe's  Elements  of  English  Metre;  Steele's 
Prosodia  Kationahs  ;  Crabbe's  Synonymes  ;  Harris's  Hermes  ;  Pickbourne  on 
the  English  Verb ;  D'Israeli's  Curiosities  of  Modern  Literature ;  Walker's, 
Johnson  s,  Sheridan's,  Richardson's,  and  Webster's  Dictionaries  ;  Locke's 
Essay  on  the  Understanding ;  Watts  on  the  Mind ;  Dictionary  of  Quota- 
tions ;  Andrew's  and  Stoddard's,  and  Adam's  Latin  Grammars  ;  Murray's, 
Brown's  Felton's,  Lennie's,  Parker's,  and  Fox's  English  Grammars; 
Hedge  s  Logic;  Encyclopajdia  Americana;  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Scien 
ces  ;  Towne's  Analysis  of  Derivative  Words  ;  American  First  Class  Book 
Mayo  s  Lessons  on  Objects  ;  Miller's  Practice  of  English  Composition 
Lockhart's  Life  of  Scott ;  Taylor's  Elements  of  Thought ;  Hannam's  Pulpit 
Assistant ;  Claude's  Essay  on  the  Composition  of  a  Sermon ;  The  London 
Quarteriy  Journal  of  Education;  Beauties  of  History;  The  Spectator; 
Inn's  Rhetorical  Class  Book ;  Lallemand's  Artillery  Service  ;  Beclard'a 
Physiology;  Poole's  English  Parnassus;  The  School  and  the  School 
master ;  Bentley's  Miscellany;  Quarles'  Books  of  Emblems  :  Kuox's  Essays 
Hay's  Biography. 


420 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS  NOTICED  IN  THIS  WOKK. 


Abstracts,  page  211- 
Accent,  its  effect,  16. 

«   Acute,  28  and  31. 

"    Grave,  28  and  31. 

"    Circumflex,  28  and  32. 
Acrostic,  289. 
Agate  type,  312. 
AJBx,  35. 

Aifixes,  Alphabetical  Synopsis  of,  37. 

"   to  Affixes,  38. 
Alexandrine  verse,  232  and  236. 
AUegory,  131. 

"    Different  kinds  of,  132. 

"    Instances  of,  note^  132. 
Alliteration,  151  and  283. 

"  Useful  as  an  aid  to  Memory, 
152. 

"   Eemarkable  instances  of,  152. 
"   Alphabetical,  note,  152. 
Allusion,  149. 

Ambassadors,  Titles  of,  190. 
•  Amphibrach,  231. 
Amplification,  65  and  218. 

«    Object  of,  218. 
Anagrams,  86. 
Analogy,  110. 

"   the  foundation   of  Simile, 
Comparison,  and  Emblem, 
Tiote,  123. 
Analysis,  Rhetorical,  note,  306. 
Anap^st,  231. 
Anapaestic  verses,  231. 

"   of  what  they  consist,  233. 
"    Dr.  Carey's  remarks  on  their 
Effect,  note,  239. 
Anticlimax,  149. 
Antistrophe,  286. 
Antithesis,  125. 

«   Eules  of,  12G. 
"   Author  of  Lacon's  Eemarks 
on,  note,  126. 
Antonomasia,  63. 

"   much  used  by  historical  writ- 
ers, note,  65. 
Aphseresis,  76. 
Apologue  and  Fable,  136. 
Apostrophe,  28,  30,  77,  143. 

"  peculiar  (as  a  rhetorical  fig- 
ure) to  Poetrv  and  Oratory, 
144. 


Apothem,   Apothegm,    or  Apoph- 
thegm, 300. 
Argumentative,  300. 

"    Writing,  example  of,  in  a  de- 
fence of  Literary  Studies 
in  Men  of  Business,  223. 
Asterisk,  28  and  32, 

Ballad,  287. 
Barbarism,  92. 
Bathos,  notes,  64  and  303. 
Beauty  in  Writing,  104. 
Bernard  De  Eohan,  Description  of, 
173. 

Bianca  Capello,  322. 
Biographical  Sketch,  322. 
Black  Eyes  and  Blue,  287. 
Blank  Verse,  241. 
Bombast,  notes,  64  and  303. 
Books,  Technical  Terms  relating  to, 
313. 

"   in  Folio,  Quarto,  Octavo,  Du 
odecimo,  &c.,  313. 
Bookbinders'  marks  for  folding,  &c. 

313. 
Bourgeois,  312. 
Boutes,  Eimes,  note,  242, 
Bowdoin  Prize  Dissertation  on  the 
Literary  Character  of  Dr.  Samue.. 
Johnson,  381. 
Brace,  28  and  31. 
Brackets,  27  and  30. 
Breve,  28  and  30. 
Brevier,  312. 
Bucohcs,  289. 
Burlesque,  297. 

*'   Happy  instances  of,  in  several 
styles,  note,  297. 
Burletta,  297. 

Butterfly  and  Humming  Bird,  The, 
an  Allegory,  135. 

Csesura,  proper  position  of,  234. 
Cantata,  287. 
Canzonet,  287. 

Capital  Letters,  Eules  for  the  Use  of, 
25. 

Cards  —  Ceremonious,  Business,  and 
Wedding,  —  forms  of,  195, 196, 197 
Caret,  28  and  32. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Catachresis,  69. 

"   literal  meaniiig  of,  note,  70. 
"   the  foundation  of  many  wit- 
ticisms, 7iote,  70. 
Catch-word,  313, 
Cedilla,  or  Cerilla,  28  and  31. 
Charade,  139  and  2SS. 
Chesterfield,  Lord,  his  disapprobation 

of  wafers,  195. 
Choice  of  Texts,  390. 
Circumlocution,  63. 
Clauses,  17. 

*'  neuter,  active  transitive,  ac- 
tive intransitive,  passive, 
relative,  and  subjunctive, 
18. 

Cbamess,  9# 
Climax,  147. 

"  the  language  of  passion,  note, 
148. 

"  and  Antithesis  united,  note, 
148. 

"    purpose  of,  note,  148. 
College  Exercises,  Specimens  of,  324. 
"   Poem,  Example  of  a,  on  the 
Pleasures  and  Pains  of  the 
Student,  336. 
Colloquy,  324. 

"    Example  of  a,  327. 
"    Subjects  for,  408. 
Colon,  its  meaning  and  use,  27  and 
29. 

Column,  313. 
Comedy,  296. 

Comma,  its  meaning  and  use,  27  and 
29. 

Common  Metre,  note,  230, 
Composition,  Introduction  and  300. 
"   Narrative,  descriptive,  didac- 
tic, persuasive,  pathetic, 
argumentative,  300. 
"   Directions  for  revising,  &c., 
303. 

"    Eules  for  the  mechanical  ex- 
ecution of,  304. 
"    Correction  of  a,  An  Example 

of,  307  and  308. 
"   of  Words,  34. 
"  of  a  Sermon,  390. 
Comparison,  122. 

"   how  difl'eringfrom  Simile  and 
from  Metaphor,  notes,  122. 
"   imder  what  heads  it  may  be 

reduced,  123. 
"   the  foundation  of,  123. 
**   when  not  to  be  used,  123. 
Eules  relating  to,  123. 
Compound  Sentences,  formation  of 
from  Simple  ones,  58. 

86 


Compound  Words,  35. 
Conclusion,  209. 
Conference,  324. 

"   Subjects  for,  40 
Confirmation,  209. 

Conjunction,  and  how  av-..-.  /  note^ 
53. 

Connected  Narrative  from  Scattered 

Facts,  157. 
Construction  of  Sentences,  93. 
Conundrums,  note,  140. 
Conversation,  or  Simple  Dialogue,  7. 
Conversion  of  Poetry  into  Prose,  76. 
Correction  of  the  Press,  marks  used 

by  printers  in,  310  and  311. 
Couplet,  or  Distich,  230. 
Critical  Notice,  317. 

"    Discussion,  Subjects  for,  410. 
Criticism,  318. 
Crotchets,  27  and  30. 
Cut,  representing  the  manner  in 

which  a  letter  should  be  folded, 

189. 

Dactyle,  231. 

Dactylic  Verse,  is  properly  defective 

Anapasstic,  note,  233. 
Dash,  28  and  30. 

Defence  of  Literary  Studies  in  Men 

of  Business,  223. 
Definition,  105. 
Deliberative  Discussion,  350. 

"    Subjects  for,  410. 
Derivation  and  Composition  of  Words, 

34. 

"   Modes  of,  36. 

"    Exercises  in,  39. 
Derivative  Words,  35. 
Description,  165. 

"    Effect  of  Figurative  Language 
in,  note,  177. 

»    Classes  of,  166. 

'    Terms  appropriate  for,  166. 

"    Selection  of  Circumstancea 
m,  167. 

"    Sir  Walter  Scott's  accuracy 

in,  note,  167. 
"   of  a  country,  canals,  168. 
"    of  rivers,  168  and  170. 

of  climate,   coasts,  forests, 

woods,  houses,  level  coun 

try,  mountains,  169. 
«    of  villages,  170. 
"    of  persons,  of  a  sensible  ob 

ject,  171. 
"    of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  172 
"    of  a  beautiful  woman,  not^^ 

173. 

«   of  Bernard  De  Eohan,  173. 


422 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Description  of  a  fine-lookino-  man, 

note,  174. 
"   of  the  elephant,  175. 
"   of  natural  scenery,  175  and 

176. 

"  Use  of  Epithets  in,  note,  115. 
Descriptive,  Intruduction  and  300. 

"    Poetry,  instances  of,  299. 
Dialogue  (simple),  7  and  324. 

"    about  dogs,  12. 
Diction,  Poetic,  77. 
Didactic,  Lurodnctio7i  and  300. 

"    Poetry,  instances  of,  299. 
Diffiresis,  27,  31,  and  77. 
Diamond  Type,  312. 
Difference,  105. 

Diminution,  or  Liptotes,  note,  142. 
Directions,  Grammatical,  8S. 

"  for  the  Division  of  a  Subject, 
215. 

"  for  acquiring  a  Good  Style, 
302.  ^ 

"  for  revising  and  correcting 
Compositions,  303. 

"  in  Letter  Writing.  [See 
Letter  S.I 

"   for  Superscriptions  and  Forms 
of  Address  to  Persons  of 
every  Panic,  note,  190. 
Discussion,  344. 

"  Different  Kinds  of,  as  philos- 
ophical, literary,  political, 
moral,  &c.,  344. 

"  Philosophical,  Example  of,  on 
the  Expediency  of  making 
Authorship  a  Profession 
345. 

"  a  Literary,  on  "  The  merits  of 
the  Histories  of  Hume  and 
Lingard,"  349. 

"  a  Deliberative,  on  Liberal 
Principles  as  affecting  the 
Strength  of  Government, 
350. 

"    Subjects  for,  40S  and  410. 
Pisputtttion,  355. 

"  Philosophical  and  Forensic, 
355. 

"  Forensic,  Example  of,  on  the 
question,  Whether  Pop- 
ular Superstitions,  or  En 
lighted  Opinion,  be  most 
favorable  to  the  growth  of 
Poetical  Literature,"  355. 

"  Philosophical,  Example  of  a, 
on  the  question,  "  Whether 
Intellectual  Improvement 
be  favorable  to  tne  produc- 
tions of  the  Imagination," 
359.  I 


Disquisition,  341. 

"   how  it  differs  from  a  Disssr 

tatiofl,  341. 
"   Ethical,  political,  scientifc, 

and  literary,  342. 
"   Ethical,  Example  of,  on  "  The 
strict  application  of  Moral 
Eules  to  the  Policy  of 
States,"  342. 
Dissertation,  338. 

"    Example  of,  on  "  The  Causes 
which,  independently  of 
their  Merit,  have  contrib 
uted  to  elevate  the  Ancient 
Classics,"  381. 
"    Bowdoin  Prize,  on  the  Life 
and  Character  of  Dr.  John- 
son, 381. 
"    Subjects  for,  414. 
Distich,  or  Couplet,  230. 
Distinction,  105. 
Divisions  of  a  Subject,  215. 

"    of  a  Sermon,  392. 
Double  Pica,  note,  312. 
Drama,  296. 

"    Eules  for  the  construction  of 
the,  296. 

Dramatic  Composition,  kinds  of,  296. 
Dramatic  Poetry,  294. 
Duet,  note,  287. 
Duodecimo,  313. 

Echo  Verses,  243. 
Eclogue,  290. 

"   how  it  differs  from  Idyl,  290. 
Ellipsis,  28,  30,  77. 
Elegiac  Poetry,  289. 
Elegy,  Gray's,  written  in  a  Country 

Church-yard,  291. 
Elision,  76. 
Emblem,  note,  122. 

"    Foundation  of   Simile  and 
Comparison,  note,  123. 
Empire  of  Poetry,  by  Fontenelle,  133. 
English  Oration,  362. 

"    on  Public  Station,  362. 
"    "The  Utilitarian  System:'' 

"  Cui  Bono,"  367. 
"    "  Pubhc  Opinion,"  371. 
"    Valedictory,  The  Spirit  that 
should  accompany  our  Ee- 
publican  Institutions,  374. 
English  Primer,  note,  312. 
English  Verse,  specimens  of  different 
kinds  of,  235. 

"    how  divided,  231. 
"    how  they  terminate,  232. 
English,  Language  of  the  61. 
Enallage,  77. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION- 


423 


Enigma,  or  Eiddle,  131. 

"   of  the  Spbinx,  note,  139. 
"   of  the  letters  H,  M,  and  E, 
13S,  and  note^  139. 

Epic,  295. 

"    Poetry,  294. 

"    Poem,  Examples  of,  295. 
Epicurean,     by     Thomas  Moore, 

noticed,  note,  230  and  295. 
Epigram,  2SS. 

"    its  characteristic  is  precise- 
ness,  2SS. 
Epilogue,  296. 
Episode,  295. 

Epistolary  Correspondence,  or  Letter 

Writing,  183.  , 
Epitaph,  290. 

"    Eemarks  on,  note,  290. 
Epithalamium,  2S9. 
Epithets,  282. 

"    Kinds  of,  283. 
"    Simple  and  Compound,  283. 
"    Judicious  Application  of,  a 
gi-eat  beauty  in  Poetry, 
283. 
Epode,  286. 

Epopea,  or  Epopoeia,  296. 

Esquire,  title  of,  when  to  be  applied, 

191. 
l^'fisay,  329. 

"   Examples  of  an,  on  "  Literat- 
ure," 331. 
"   on  "  The  Pleasures  derived 
from  the  Fine  Arts  by  the 
Artist  and  the  Common 
Spectator,"  333. 
"   on  "  The  Sentiment  of  Loy- 
alty," 334. 
"   filled  out  from  heads,  outlines, 
or  abstracts,  213. 
Etymological  Figures,  111. 
Euphemism,  63. 
Euphonic  Letters,  35. 
Events,  Objects  and,  5. 
Evening,  Invitation  for,  Form  of,  193. 
Example,  209. 

Exclamation,  as  a  point,  23  and  29. 

*'    as  a  rhetorical  figure,  145. 
Exercises,  College,  Specimens  of,  324. 
Exordium,  362. 
Expansion  of  an  Idea,  21. 
Expansion  of  Narrative  Writing,  note, 
159. 

Explanations  and  Paraphrase,  153. 
Expletives,  cautions  against  use  of, 

note,  241. 
Expression,  Vaiiety  of,  73. 
Expressions,  Selection  of,  92. 
Fable  and  Apologue,  136. 


Fable  and  Ajjologue,  how  they  differ 

from  a  Tale,  136. 
Farce,  296. 

Faults  destructive  of  clearness,  94. 
Feet,  Poetical,  231. 
"    Kinds  of,  231. 
"    what  kinds  most  frequently 

used,  231. 
"    Secondary,  231. 
Figurative  Language,  111  and  283. 
' '    and  Plain,  difierence  between, 
113. 

"  translation  of  Plain  into,  115. 
Figure,  Definition  of  a,  111. 

"    Etymological,  Syntactical  and 
Rhetorical,  111. 
Figures,  as  enumerated  by  Holmes, 
note.  111. 

"    Use  of,  112. 

"    Faults  of,  note,  112. 
Folding  of  a  Letter,  188  and  189. 

"    of  Notes,  &c.,  194. 
Folio,  313. 

Forensic  Disputation,  355. 

"    Example  of  a,  355. 

«    Subjects  for,  409. 
Form  of  a  Letter,  186. 
Formal  Letter,  Example  of  a,  188. 
Formation  of  Compound  Sentences 

from  Simple  ones,  58. 
Forms  for  Cards,  &c.,  195. 

Generalization  of  a  Subject,  227 

Genus,  105. 

Ginevra,  81  and  84. 

Governor  of  a  State,  Title  by  which 

he  is  to  be  addressed,  190. 
Grammatical  Propriety,  88. 
Great  Primer,  note,  312. 

Harmonv,  94  and  99. 
"    Rules  of,  100. 
"    Higher  Kind  of,  101. 
"    of  a  Verse,  how  destroyed, 
238. 

Heads  of  Departments,  their  Titles, 
190. 

"  or  Divisions,  of  a  Subject,  in 
argumentative  discussions, 
in  persuasive,  descriptive, 
narrative,  and  didactic 
Vv-riting,  216. 

Hemistich,  230. 

Heroic  Measure,  note,  232. 

"  the  principal  Metre  of  the 
English  Language,  notz^ 
240. 

Heroic  Verse,  296. 
Heroics,  Mock,  297. 


424 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION". 


Higher  Species  of  Poetry,  294. 

Honorable,  Title  of,  when  to  be  ap- 
phed,  190  and  191. 

Humming  Bird  and  Butterfly,  Alle- 
gory of,  135. 

Hyperbaton,  77. 

Hyperbole,  _41. 

"  Eeverse  of,  oiote^  142. 
"    Purpose  of,  note,  148. 

Hymns,  286. 

Hypermeter,  232. 

Hyphen,  28  and  30. 

Iambic  Verse,  or  Measure,  231. 

"   of  what  it  consists,  232. 

"   how  accented,  232. 
Iambus,  2.31. 
Idyl,  or  Idyllium,  290. 
Illustration  of  a  Subject,  219. 
Impromptu,  289. 
Impropriety,  92. 

Improprieties,  Colloquial,  note,  54. 
Independence,   different    senses  in 

which  it  is  used,  IDS. 
Index,  420. 

Indian  Eeasoning,  remai'kable  in- 
stance of,  note,  220. 

iTiq^uu-y,  political,  philosophical,  &c.. 
Subject  for,  410. 

Interrogation  (as  a  point),  28  and  29. 
"    (as  a  rhetoncal  figure),  144. 

Invitation,  notes  of,  192. 
"   fornis  of,  193. 

Inversion  and  Transposition,  Methods 
of,  50. 

Irony,  150. 

"   proper  subjects  of,  150. 

It,  the  neuter  pronoun,  useful  in 
altering  the  arrangement  of  a  sen- 
tence, note,  56. 

Itahc  Words  in  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment, 313. 

Ivanhoe,  Extract  from,  note,  62. 

Jablonski's  Welcome  of  Stanislaus, 
note,  87. 

Jardine's  Remarks  on  the  manage- 
ment of  a  Subject,  204. 
"   Remarks  on  the  Fourth  Order 
of  Themes,  219. 
Jests  and  Jokes,  note,  140. 

"    difference  between,  7iote,  140. 
Judges,  Titles  of,  190. 
Justice,  Poetical,  296. 

King,  how  to  be  addressed,  note,  190. 
Knight,  The,  and  the  Lady,  275. 

Lampoons,  300. 


Language,  English,  of  the,  61. 

"   how  rendered  copious  and  ex 
pressivcj  3.5. 
Legend  of  Modena,  S3. 
Letter  Writing,  or  Epistolary  Corre» 
pondence,  183. 

"   with  explanation  of  its  parts 
187.  ^  ' 

Directions  in  Writing,  187. 
"   in  what  person  to  be  written 
184. 

"    Date,  Signature,  and  Super 

scription  of,  185. 
"   the  particulars  it  should  em 

brace,  185. 
"    Date  of,  where  to  be  written 
185. 

"    Complimentary  Address,  body 
of  the   Letter,   Style  or 
Complimentary  Closing, 
Signature,  Title,  &c.,  185. 
"    Forms  of  a,  186. 
"    Directions  for  Adchessing  to 
Persons  of  every  Rank, 
note,  190. 
"    Directions  for  Sealing,  195. 
"    of  Introduction,  198. 
"    of  Condolence,  199. 
Letters,  Euphonic,  35. 
"    Radical,  35. 

"   frequency  of  their  recurrence, 
312. 

Licenses,  Poetical,  76. 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  a  State,  hia 

Title,  190. 
Lines  addressed  to  Lady  Byron,  285. 
Liptotes,  or  Diminution,  note,  142. 
List  of  Works  consulted  in  the  pro 

paration  of  this  Volume,  419 
Literature,  Essay  on,  331. 
Logogriph,  288.  " 
Long  Metre,  note,  230. 

"    Primer,  312. 
Lord  Chesterfield,  his  disapprobation 

of  wafers,  note,  195. 
Lyric  Poetry,  284. 

Machinery  of  a  Poem,  295. 
Madrigal,  288. 

Mai-ks  used  by  Printers  in  Correc- 
tions of  the  Press,  310  and  311. 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,,  Description 
of,  172. 

Massachusetts,  Titles  recognized  by 

Law  in,  note,  190. 
Maxim,  -iwte,  154. 
Mayor,  the  Title  of  a,  190. 
Measure,  Heroic,  note,  232. 
Megan,  Story  of,  IGO. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


425 


Members  of  a  House  of  Represent- 
atives, and  of  a  Board  of  Aldermen, 
how  to  be  addressed,  190. 

Metaphors,  meaning  of,  112  and  113, 
and  note^  113. 
"    Rules  of,  117. 

Metre,  2.30. 

"    Long,  Common,  Short,  and 
Particular,  note,  230. 

Methods  of  Inversion  and  Transpo- 
sition, 50. 

Minion,  312. 

Mock  Heroics,  297. 

Modena,  Legend  of,  S3. 

Monologue,  2S9. 

Music  of  a  Sentence,  and  on  what  it 

depends,  101. 
Musical  Construction,  lOi. 

Names,  Exercise  on,  6. 
Narration  Expanded,  159. 

"   and  Description  United,  in  the 
Story  of  the  Son,  178. 
Narrative,  Introduction^  and  300. 

"    Outlines  in,  155. 

"    Connected,   from  scattered 
facts,  157. 

'*    Writing,  plan  in,  note,  159. 
Expansion  of,  note,  159. 

Nelson,  Admiral,  Lord,  Anecdote  of, 
note,  195. 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  his  use  of  Ana- 
grams, Twte,  87. 

Nobility,  The,  how  to  be  addressed, 
n/ite,  191. 

Nonpareil,  312. 

Nonsense  Verses,  238. 

Notes  of  Invitation,  192. 

"   Forms  of,  with  the  Reply,  193. 

Notice,  Critical,  317. 
"    Obituary,  313. 

Novels,  295. 

Obituary  Notice,  314. 
ObeUsk,  28  and  32. 

"    Double,  28  and  32. 
Objects,  and  their  Parts,  1. 

*'    their  Qualities  and  Uses,  2. 

"   their  Parts,  Qualities,  Uses, 
and  Appendages,  3. 

"  .  and  Events,  5. 
()t)ject  of  a  Verb,  how  expressed,  19. 
Objective  Nouns,  with  Preposition  of, 

■when  inelegant,  vx)te,  53. 
Obsolete  Words,  nx)te,  77, 
Octavo,  313. 
Octodecimo,  313. 

Ode,  m>: 

36* 


Ode,  The  Greek,  286. 
Ofi&cial  Documents,  how  folded,  note. 
188. 

Onomatopoeia,  or  Onomatopy,  104. 

*'    Instances  of,  235. 
Oration,  361. 

"   its  meaning,  361. 

"    the  Parts  of  an,  362. 

"  English,  on  "  Public  Sta- 
tion," 362. 

«  on  "The  Utilitarian  Sys 
tem;"  "  Ct^  Bono,"  367. 

"   Public  Opinion,  371. 

*'  Valedictory, "  The  Spirit  that 
should  accompany  our 
Republican  Institutions," 
374. 

"    Latin,  Valedictory,  379. 
"    Subjects  for,  416. 
Outlines  in  Narrative,  155. 

Pseans,  286. 
Parable,  136. 
Paragoge,  77. 
Parallel,  28,  32,  and  128. 

"  between  Pope  and  Dryden, 
128. 

"  between  Jay  and  Hamilton 
130. 

Paragraph,  28  and  32. 
Paranomasia,  note,  139  and  140. 
Paraphrase,  or  Explanation,  153. 
Parody  and  Parodies,  297. 
Particulur  Metre,  note,  230. 
Pasquinade,  300. 
Pastoral  Poetry,  289. 
Pastorals,  289. 

Pathetic,  Introduction  and  300. 
Patience,  An  Allegory,  132. 
Pearl,  (type),  312, 

Peculiarities  and  Improprieties,  note, 
54. 

Period,  its  meaning  and  use,  note,  27, 
and  29. 

Periphrase  or  Periphrasis,  63. 

"   useful  to  avoid  repetition  of 
the  same  word,  64. 

"    apt  to  run  into  bombast,  64. 
Perspicuity,  92. 

Persuasive,  Introdxiction  and  300. 
Philosophical  Discussion,  Subjects 

for,  410. 
Phrases,  92. 

"    clauses,  &c.,  17. 
"    and  clauses,  difference  bf 
tween,  18. 

Pica,  312. 

"   smaU,  double,  two  line,  thr© 
line,  &c.,  note^  312. 


^26 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Pickbourne,  on  the  us3  of  the  parti- 
ciple, note^  89. 
Plain  Lang-uage  and  Figurative,  dif- 
ference between,  113. 

"    Translation  of  into  Figura- 
tive, 115. 
Plan  of  a  Composition,  218. 
Pleonasm,  71  and  77. 
Poem,  College,  Example  of,  on  the 
pleasures  and  pains  of  the  Stu- 
dent, 336. 
"    Machinerv  of,  290. 
"    Subjects  for,  414. 
Poetical  Justice,  296. 
"    Feet,  231. 
"    "    kinds  of,  231. 
"    "    what  kinds  most  frequent- 
ly used,  231. 
Poetry,  sentimental,  note^  29^. 
"    instances  of,  note^  299. 
"    Lyric,  284. 

"    Pastoral  and  Elegiac,  289. 
"    higher  species  of,  294. 
"   Epic  and  Dramatic,  294. 
"    Didactic  and  Descriptive,  294. 
Empire  of,  an  Allegoiy,  by 

Fontenelle,  133. 
and  Versification,  230. 
deals  largely  in  figurative  lan- 
guage, 230. 
"    True,  what  it  consists  in,  note, 
230. 

Poetic  diction,  77. 

"    licenses,  76. 
Pohtical  Discussion,  Subjects  for,  410. 
Possessive  .nouns,  wdien  ineleo-ant, 

note,  53. 
Precision,  92  and  93. 

"    how  promoted,  note,  93. 

"    opposed  to  Tautology  and 
Pleonasm,  note,  93. 
Prefix,  35. 

Prefixes,  Alphabetical  synopsis  of,  36. 

Prepositions,  what  ones  to  be  used 
w^ith  certain  words,  note,  53. 

President  of  the  United  States,  the 
title  by  which  he  is  to  be  address- 
ed, 190. 

Primer,  Long,  312. 

Primitive  words,  34. 

Printers'  marks  for  the  correction  of 
the  press,  310  and  311. 

Privy  Counsellors,  how  addressed, 
vMte,  191. 

Prologue,  296. 

Proposition  or  narrative,  20?. 
Propriety,  92  and  93. 

"  Grammatical,  68.  I 
Prosopopoeia,  or  Personification,  118.  j 


Prosopopoeia,  its  use  to  poetical  wri 
ters,  lis. 

"    difierent  degrees  of,  119. 
"   beautiful  instances  of,  from 
Thoinson's   Seasons,  oiote^ 
118,  and  ]\Iilton's  Paradise 
Lost,  note,  120. 
"   how  the  genders  should  be 
applied,  note,  121. 
Proven9al  or  Provhicial  dialect,  295. 
Prosthesis  77. 
Proverb,  note,  154. 
Psalms,  286. 
Pun,  note,'l39. 

"   sometimes  appears  as  an  ep 
igram,  7iote,  140. 
Puncbaation,  27. ' 

"   importance  of,  note,  27. 
"    Eules  of,  23. 
I       "   Exercises  in,  32. 
Purity,  92. 
Pyrrhic,  231. 

Quantity  of  a  syllable,  231. 
Quartette,  note,  287. 
Quarto,  313. 
Quatrains,  287. 
Quotation,  209. 

"   marks  of,  27  and  30. 

Eadical  letters,  35. 
Reason  or  Argument,  209. 
Reasoning  powers  of  the  Indians,  re- 
markable instance  of,  note,  290 
Rebus,  7iote,  139. 
Redundancy,  71. 
Refutation  of  an  objection,  225. 
Regular  subjects,  200. 
Remarks  and  Analysis  on  a  speci 
men  of  argumentative  writing,  225. 
Repetition,  144. 

Representatives  of  the  United  States, 

their  titles,  190. 
Revolutionary  Story,  162. 
Rhetorical  figures,  111. 
Rhyme,  241. 

"   useful  as  an  aid  to  memoiv. 

152.  ^ 
"   where  it  must  always  com 

mence,  232  and  241. 
"    Rules  of,  241. 
"   not  essential  in  poetry,  note, 

241.  ^  ^ 

"    kinds  of,  242. 
Rh^Tnes,  Vocabulary  of,  243. 

"    directions  for  finding,  243. 
Rules  of,  note,  244. 
f^nggestion  to  students  witr 
regard  to,  ^i74. 


A.IDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


427 


BKymcs,  siiigular  kinds  of,  275. 
Riidle  or  Enigma,  138. 

of  the  Sphinx,  note^  139. 
R  ^mance,  295. 

I? /-n dean,  rondo,  ronndo,  roundel,  or 

i-oundelay,  2S8. 
I  lot  of  a  word,  35. 
*  ales  of  Propriety,  92. 

"    Unity,  95. 

"    Strength,  97. 

"    Harmony,  100  and  101. 

"    Jletaphors,  117. 

"    Comparisons,  123. 

«'   Antithesis,  12G. 

"   for  the  mechanical  execution 
of  written  exercises,  304. 

"    General,  of  a  Sermon,  391. 
iunning  title,  313. 

Sarcasm,  150. 
Satires,  300. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  his  accuracy  in 

description,  note,  167. 
Secondary  feet,  231. 
Section,  25  and  32. 
Selection  of  words  and  expre:3sions, 

92. 

Semicolon,  its  meaning  and  use,  27 

and  28. 
Sentences,  17. 

"    Parts  of,  18. 

"  .  Kinds  of,  19. 

"    Simple  and  Compound,  19. 

"    Parts  and  Adjuncts  of,  22. 

"    Construction  of,  93. 

"   Essential  properties  of  per- 
fect, 94. 

"    Unity  of,  95. 

"    What  kind  should  not  succeed 
one  another,  101. 
Senators,  their  titles,  190. 
Sentimental  Poetry,  note,  299. 

"    instances  of,  note,  299. 
Sermon,  Composition  of  a,  390. 

"    General  Rules  of  a,  391. 

"    of  connexion  of  a,  391. 

"    Divisions  of  a,  392. 

"    Discussion  in  a,  393. 

"   Explication  of  terms  in  a,  393. 

"   Explication  in  a,  of  two  sorts, 
393. 

"    Skeletons  of  a,  396  and  398. 
Shakspeare  as  a  dramatic  writer,  296. 
Sherwood,  Mrs.,  Social  Tales,  Ex- 
tracts from,  205. 
■Short  meti-e,  note,  230. 
Simile  and  Comparison,  122  and  209. 
"■    Distinction    between,  note, 
122. 


Simile,  how  it  differs  from  metaphor, 

note,  122. 
Simple  words,  35. 

"    Dialogue  or  Conversation,  7. 
Sketch,  Biographical,  322. 
Small  Pica,  312. 
Solecism,  92. 
Sonnet,  287. 

"    to  one  beloved,  287. 
Sound  adapted  to  the  sense,  instan- 
ces of,  ( bee  Onomatopceia),  102  and 
104. 

Specimens  of  different  kinds  of  Eng- 
lish verse,  235. 

Spectator,  No.  411,  Dr.  Blair's  CrifcU 
cism  of,  318. 

Speech,  361. 

Spondee,  231. 

Stanza  and  Stave,  7iote,  230. 
Story  of  Megan,  160. 
Strength,  94  and  97. 

"    Rules  of,  97. 
Strophe,  286. 
Style,  92  and  300. 

"  Different  kinds  of,  as  diffuse, 
concise,  nervous,  feeble, 
dry,  plain,  neat,  elegant 
flowery  or  florid,  simple, 
afiected,  vehement,  barren, 
luxuriant,  forcible,  elevat- 
ed, dignified,  idiomatic,  ea- 
sy, animated,  &c.,  301.  La- 
conic, note,  301. 
"   Directions  for  forming  a  good. 

302.  *    ^  ' 

"   of  Simple  Narration,  75. 
"   of  Passionate  Exclamation, 
75.  ' 
loose,  source  of,  93. 
Subject  of  a  verb,  how  expressed,  19 
"    Illustration  of  a,  219. 
"    Treatment  of  a,  222. 
"    Generahzation  of  a,  227. , 
Subjects  and  methods  of  treatinsr 
them,  200. 

"  for  Compositions  of  all  sorts, 
399. 

"   for  Conferences,  405. 

"  Colloquys  or  colloquial  dis 
cussions,  408. 

"    Dissertations,  414. 

"  Forensic  and  Philosophical 
Disputations,  409. 

"  Deliberative,  Political,  Criti- 
cal, Philosophical,  and  Lit- 
erary Discussions,  Disqui 
sitions,  Liquirics,  &c.,  410. 

"    for  Orations,  Essays,  &c.,  416, 

"   Poems,  414. 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


Suggestions  to  teachers  with  regard 
to  the  w.-itteu  exercises  of  stu- 
dents, 304. 

Superscription  of  a  Letter,  titles 
proper  for,  190. 

Sjnaeresis,  77. 

Syncategoreinatica,  393. 

Synonymes,  40. 

Synonymous  \vords,  93. 

Syntactical  figures,  111. 

Tale,  295. 
Tautology,  69. 

Teachers,  suggestions  to,  vdth  regard 

to  written  exercises,  304. 
Technical  terms,  relatmg  to  books, 

313. 

Terms  suitable  for  Descriptions,  166. 
Terzines,  2S7. 

Testimonv  or  Quotation,  209. 
Texts,  choice  of,  390. 
Theme,  Example  of  a  College,  324. 
Themes,  203. 

"    how  divided,  203. 

"    Simple,  203. 

"    Complex,  204. 

"    Proof  of,  208. 

"   Proposition  of,  208. 
Thesis,  329. 
Title,  Running,  313. 

"    Page,  313. 
Tmesis,  77. 
Tract,  329. 
Tragedy,  296. 

Translation  of  plain  into  figrurative 
 ?e,  115. 


"   or  conversion  of  poetry  into 
prose,  76. 

Transposition  and  Inversion,  methods 

of,  50. 
Travesties,  297. 
Treatise,  329. 

Treatment  of  a  subject,  200. 
Tribrach,  231. 
Trio,  note,  287. 
Trochee,  231. 
Trochaic  verse,  231. 

*'   how  accented,  231. 

"   how  it  terminates,  note^  233. 
Trope,  meaning  of,  112  and  113. 
Tropes,  faults  of,  note,  111. 
Troubadours,  295. 

"    Tales  of,  295. 
Tutor  and  his  Pupils,  A  Dialogue,  8. 
Types,  names  of  different  sizes  of, 
312. 

Unities,  the  three,  as  they  are  called, 
296.     .  ^ 


Unity,  94  and  95. 

"   how  son:  etimes  preserved  9»< 
"   of  action,  what  it  requircR 
293. 

"   of  time  and  place,  296. 

Variety  of  expression,  73. 
Verbosity,  71. 
Versification,  230. 

"   first  exercise  in,  238. 
Verse,  230,  and  note,  230. 

"    Alexandrine,  jwte,  232. 
"    without  rhyme,  241. 
"    Onomatopoeia,  a  great  beautT 
in,  235.  ^ 
Verses,  English,  how  divided,  231. 
"   how  they  terminate,  232. 
"   specimens  of  diflferent  kinds 
of,  235. 

"   of  what  kinds  of  feet  they 

may  be  composed,  231. 
"   Iambic,  231. 
"    "   how  accented,  232. 
"    Trochaic,  231. 
"        how  accented,  232. 
"    Anapasstic,  231. 
"    "    of  what  they  consist,  233. 
"    Dactylic,  231. 
"   "    are  properlv  defective  An 

apae Stic,  232. 
"   pure  Iambic,  what  they  con- 
tain, 232. 
"   Iambic,  forms  of,  232. 

in  which  the  secondary  feet 
are  admitted  to  give  varie 

"   Nonsense,  238. 
"   Echo,  243. 

"   specimens  of  various  kinds 
of,  235, 

Vice-President  of  the  United  States, 
the  title  by  which  he  is  to  be  ad 
dressed,  190. 

Vignette,  313. 

Vision,  146. 

Vivacity  of  style,  how  sometimes  a&- 
tainable,  7wte,  58. 

Wafers,  195. 

Walkers  Directions  for  the  divisioiaa 

of  a  subject,  200. 

"   Directions  for  Themes,  208. 
"    Rules  Versified,  201  and  209. 
Waverley,  Author  of,  liis  misuse  of 

the  tenses,  89. 
Webster,  Hon.  Daniel,  remarkable . 
for  the  Saxon  force  ana  purity  of 
bis  language,  Hr>rc.  O2 


AIDS  TO  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 


429 


Winged  Worshippers,  the,  284. 
Words,  15  and  92. 

"   as  affected  by  accent,  16. 

"   to  be  arranged  in  a  sentence, 
24. 

"    Derivation  and  Composition 
of,  34. 

"   Primitive  and  Derivative,  34. 
**    Simple  and  Compound,  35. 
**   Keducible  to  groups  or  fami- 
lies, 35. 
**  Selection  of,  92. 


Words,  Similar  in  sound,  and  differ- 
ent in  spelling  and  siguifi 
'  cation,  note,  49. 
'*    What  kinds  of  most  pleasing 

to  the  ear,  101. 
"    Sounds  of,  for  what  they  may 
be  employed  to  represent, 
102. 

"   when  used  literally  and  when 
figuratively. 
Works  consulted  in  the  preparation 
of  this  volume,  419. 


* 


# 


BOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES, 


AT  GREATLY  REDUCED  PRICES, 

PUBLISHED  BY 

.HARFEK  6l  BROTHEEB5  NEW  YORK. 


Abbott's  Illustrated  Histories. 

Suitable  for  Reading  Books  in  Scliools.  Illuminated  Title- 
pages  and  numerous  Engravings.  16mo,  Muslin,  60  cents 
each;  Muslin,  gilt  edges,  75  cents  each. 

Cleopatra. — ^Josephine. — Madame  Roland. — Xerxes, — Cyrus. 
— ^Darius. — Alexander. — Hannibal. — Julius  Ctesar. — Alfred, — 
William  the  Conqueror. — Queen  Elizabeth. — Mary  Queen  of 
Scots. — Charles  I, — Charles  11. — Maria  Antoinette, — Romulus. 
— Py  rrlius,  — ISTero. 

Abercrombie  on  tlie  intelleotiial  Powers. 

Essay  on  the  Intellectual  Powers,  Inquiries  concerning  the 
Intellectual  Powers  and  the  Investigation  of  Truth.  With 
Questions.    18mo,  Muslin,  45  cents  ;  Half  Bound,  50  cents. 

Abercrombie  oe  the  Moral  Feelings, 

The  Philosophy  of  the  Moral  Feelings,  With  Questions. 
18mo,  Mushn,  40  cents;  Half  Bound,  50  cents. 

Alison's  Essay  on  Taste. 

Essay  on  the  Nature  and  Principles  of  Taste.  With  Correc- 
tions and  Improvements,  by  Abraham  Mills.  12mo,  Muslin, 
75  cents. 

Andrews's  Latin-Englisli  Lexicon. 

Founded  on  the  larger  German-Latin  Lexicon  of  Dr.  William 
Fkeund.  With  Additions  and  Corrections  from  the  Lexicons 
pf  Gesner,  Facciolati,  Scheller,  Georges,  &o.  Royal  8vo, 
Sheep,  $5  00. 

Anthon's  Olassical  Dictionary. 

Containing  an  Account  of  the  Principal  Proper  ISTames  men- 
tioned in  Ancient  Authors,  and  intended  to  elucidate  all  the 
important  Points  connected  with  the  Geography,  Histor}?-,  Bi- 
ography, Mythology,  and  Fine  Arts  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
together  with  an  Account  of  the  Coins,  Weights,  and  Measures 
of  the  Ancients,  with  Tabular  Values  of  the  same.  Royal  Bvo, 
Sheep  extra,  |4  00. 

Antkon's  Latin-English  Bietionary. 

A  Latin-English  and  English-Latin  Dictionary,  for  the  use  of 
Schools.  Chiefly  from  the  Lexicons  of  Freund,  Georges,  and 
Kaitschmidt.    Small  4to,  Sheep,  |2  00. 


2 


BOOKS  FOP.  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 


Anthou's  Classical  Series. 

Latin  lessons.  Latin  Grammar,  Part  I.  Containing  the  most  im- 
portant Parts  of  the  Grammar  of  the  Latin  Language,  together 
with  appropriate  Exercises  in  the  Translating  and  Writing  of 
Latin.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

Latin  Prose  Composition.  Latin  Grammar,  Part  11  An  Introduc- 
tion to  Latin  Prose  Composition,  with  a  complete  Course  of 
Exercises,  illustrative  of  all  the  important  Principles  of  Latin 
Syntax.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

A  Key  to  the  Above  is  published,  which  may  be  obtained  by 
Teachers.    12mo,  Half  Sheep,  50  cents. 

Zumpt's  Latin  Grammar.  From  the  ninth  Edition  of  the  Original, 
adapted  to  the  use  of  English  Students.  By  Leonhard 
ScHMiTZ,  Ph.D.  Corrected  and  enlarged.  12mo,  Sheep  extra. 
76  cents.  ^ 

An  Abridgment  of  the  Above.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  50  cents. 

Latin  Prosody  and  Metre.  From  the  best  Authorities,  Ancient  and 
Modern.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

Latin  Versification.  In  a  Series  of  Progressive  Exercises,  including 
Specmaens  of  Translation  from  English  and  German  Poetry 
mto  Latm  Verse,    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

A  Key  to  the  Above  is  published,  which  may  be  obtained  bv 
Teachers.    12mo,  Half  Sheep,  60  cents. 

Caesar's  Commentaries  on  the  Gallic  War,  and  the  First  Book  of  the 
Greek  Paraphrase;  with  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explana- 
tory, Plans  of  Battles,  Sieges,  Ac,  and  Historical,  Geograph- 
ical, and  Archffiological  Indexes.  Map,  Portrait,  <fec.  12mo 
Sheep  extra,  $1  GO. 

The  iEneid  of  Virgil.  With  English  ISTotes,  Critical  and  Explana- 
tory a  Metrical  Clavis,  and  an  Historical,  Geographical,  and 
Mythological  Index.  Portrait  and  many  Illustrations.  12mo 
Sheep  extra,  $1  25. 

Eclogues  and  Georgics  of  Virgil.  With  English  I^otes,  Critical  and 
Explanatory.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  |1  25. 

Sallust's  Jugurthine  War  and  Conspiracy  of  Catiline.  With  an  En- 
glish Commentary,  and  Geographical  and  Historical  Indexes. 
JNew  Edition,  corrected  and  enlarged.  Portrait.  12mo  Sheep 
extra,  75  cents. 

The  Works  of  Horace.  ^  With  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explana- 
tory A  new  Edition,  corrected  and  enlarged,  with  Excursions 
relative  to  the  Vmes  and  Vineyards  of  the  Ancients;  a  Life 
of  Horace,  &c.    12mo,  Sheep  exfra,  $1  26. 

Cicer  Select  Orations.  With  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explan- 
atory, and  Historical  Geographical,  and  Legal  Indexes.  An 
improved  Edition.    Portrait,    12mo,  Sheep  ixtra,  $1  00 


BOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 


3 


Anthon's  Classical  Series,  continued. 

Cicero  de  Senectute,  De  Amicitia,  and  Paradoxa,  and  the  Life  of 
Atticus  by  Nepos.  With  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explan- 
atory.   12nio,  Sheep  extra,  cents. 

Cicero's  Tasculan  Disputations.  With  English  Notes,  Critical  and 
Explanatory.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  00. 

The  Germania  and  Agricola,  and  also  Selections  from  the  Annals, 
of  Tacitus.  With  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explanatory. 
12nio,  Sheep  extra,  $1  00. 

Cornelius  Nepos.  Cornelii  Nepotis  Vitse  Imperatorum  Excellentium. 
With  English  Notes,  &c.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  00. 

Terence.  Terentii  Comoedise,  with  English  Notes,  Metrical  Tables, 
and  an  Essay  on  the  Scanning  of  Terence,  &c.  12mo,  Sheep 
extra.    {In  press.) 

First  Greek  Lessons.  Containing  the  most  important  Parts  of  the 
Grammar  of  the  Greek  Language,  together  with  appropriate 
Exercises  in  the  Translating  and  Writing  of  Greek ;  for  the  use 
of  Beginners.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  15  cents. 

Greek  Prose  Composition,  Greek  Lessons,  Part  IL  An  Introduc- 
tion to  Greek  Prose  Composition,  with  a  complete  Course  of 
Exercises  illustrative  of  all  the  important  Principles  of  Greek 
Syntax.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  15  cents. 

Grammar  of  the  Greek  language.  For  the  use  of  Schools  and  Col- 
leges.   12mo,  Sheep  extra,  15  cents. 

A  New  Greek  Grammar.  From  the  German  of  Kuhner,  MatthisB, 
Buttmann,  Kost,  and  Thiersch;  to  which  are  appended  Ee- 
marks  on  the  Pronunciation  of  the  Greek  Language,  and  Chro- 
nological Tables  explanatory  of  the  same.  12mo,  Sheep  extra, 
15  cents. 

Greek  Prosody  and  Metre.  For  the  use  of  Schools  and  Colleges; 
together  with  the  Choral  Scanning  of  the  Prometheus  Vinctus 
of  u^Jschylus,  and  (Edipus  Tyrannus  of  Sophocles,  to  which  are 
appended  Remarks  on  the  Indo-Germanic  Analogies.  12mo, 
Sheep  extra,  15  cents. 

A  Greek  Reader.  Principally  from  the  German  of  Jacobs.  With 
English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explanatory,  a  Metrical  Index  to 
Homer  and  Anacreon,  and  a  copious  Lexicon.  12mo,  Sheep 
extra,  $1  00. 

Homer.  The  First  Six  Books  of  Homer's  Iliad,  to  which  are  ap- 
pended English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explanatory,  a  Metrical  In- 
dex, and  Homeric  Glossary.  New  and  enlarged  Edition. 
12mo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  25, 

The  Anabasis  of  Xenophon,  With  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Ex- 
planatory, a  Map  arranged  according  to  the  latest  and  best  Au- 
thorities, and  a  Plan  of  the  Battle  of  Cunaza.  12mo,  Sheej? 
extra,  $1  26. 


4  BOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 

Anthon's  Classical  Series,  continued. 

Xenophon's  Memorabilia  of  Socrates.  From  the  Text  of  Kiihner 
With  Explanatory  Notes,  &c.,  by  D.  B.  Hickie,  LL.D.  First 
American  Edition,  corrected  and  enlarged.  12nio  ShecD  ex- 
tra, $1  00.  o  '  1 

Manual  of  Roman  Antiquities.  From  the  most  recent  German 
Works.  With  a  Description  of  the  City  of  Rome,  &c.  12mo 
Sheep  extra,  87i  cents.  ' 

Manual  of  Greek  literature.  With  a  Critical  History  of  the  Greek 
Language.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  00. 

Manual  of  Greek  Antiquities.  From  the  best  and  most  recent 
Sources.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  81^-  cents. 

Manual  of  Greek  and  Roman  Mythology.    12mo,  Sheep  extra. 

Latin  Syntax,  Latin  Lessons,  Part  II.  Containing  Latin  Syntax 
with  Reading  Lessons,  and  Exercises  in  double  translation  on 
the  basis  of  Kuhner's.  12mo,  Sheep  extra.  (Uniform  with 
Latin  Lessons,  Part  I.) 

Ovid.  Selections  from  the  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid.  With  English 
JNotes,  Critical  and  Explanatory.    12mo.    {In press.) 

Euripides.  The  Hecuba,  Hippolytus,  Medea,  and  Baccha  of  Eurip- 
''^Tprls)  ^'''^'"'^^  '"''^  Explanatory.  12mo. 

Juvenal.  The  Satires  of  Juvenal.  With  English  Notes,  Critical 
and  Explanatory.    {In  press.) 

Bigelow  on  the  Useful  Arts, 

considered  in  Connection  with  the  Applications  of  Science. 
With  numerous  Engravings.    2  vols.  12iio,  Muslin,  $1  50. 

Boucharlat's  Meclianics. 

An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Mechanics.  Translated  from  the 
French,  with  Additions  and  Emendations,  by  Prof  Edward  H. 
CouETENAY.    Plates.    8vo,  Sheep  extra,  $2  25. 

Boyd's  Eclectic  Moral  Philosophy; 

MuSir^s^cente^^^^^*^  Institutions  and  general  Use.  12mo, 

Boyd's  Rhetoric  and  Criticism. 

pi^f?^^'^?^  Rhetoric  and  Literary  Criticism,  with  copious 
mtw  ,^,fr«J,«^V^?^  Examples.  Including,  'also,  a  succinct 
History  of  the  Enghsh  Language,  and  of  British  and  American 
Literature,  from  tlie  earliest  to  the  present  Times.  On  the 
Basis  of  the  recent  Works  of  Alexander  Reid  andR.  Cunnell; 
with  large  Additions  from  other  Sources.  12mo,  Half  Bound 
oO  cents.  * 


BOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 


5 


Brande's  Encyclopedia. 

A  Dictionary  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art;  compriaing  the 
History,  Description,  and  Scientific  Principles  of  eveiT  Branch 
of  Human  Knowledge ;  with  the  Derivation  and  Definition  of 
all  the  Terms  in  general  use.  Illustrated  by  numerous  En- 
gravings on  Wood.    8vo,  Sheep  extra,  $4  00. 

Burke  on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful. 

Essay  on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful.  A  Philosophical  Inquiry 
into  the  Origin  of  our  Ideas  of  the  Sublime  and  the  Beautiful. 
With  an  Introductory  Discourse  concerning  Taste.  Edited  by 
Abraham  Mills.    12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents. 

Buttmami's  Greek  Grammar. 

A  Greek  Granmiar,  for  the  use  of  High  Schools  and  Universi- 
ties. Revised  and  enlarged  by  Alexander  Buttmann,  Trans- 
lated from  the  18th  German  Edition,  by  Edward  Robinson, 
D.D.,  LL.D.    Svo,  Sheep  extra,  $2  00. 

CampbelFs  PMlosopliy  of  Rlietoric. 

Revised  Edition.    12mo,  Muslin,  |1  25. 

Cicero's  Orator.  ,^ 

Cicero's  Three  Dialogues  on  the  Orator.  Translated  into  En- 
glish, by  W.  Guthrie.  Revised  and  Corrected,  with  I^otes. 
ISmo,  Muslin,  45  cents. 

Clark's  Elements  of  Algebra. 

Embracing,  also,  the  Theory  and  Application  of  Logarithms ; 
together  with  an  Appendix,  containing  Infinite  Series,-  the 
General  Theory  of  Equations,  and  the  most  approved  Methods 
of  resolving  the  higher  Equations.    Bvo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  00. 

Comte's  Pkilosopliy  of  Mathematics. 

Translated  from  the  Cours  de  Phiiosophie  Positive,  by  W.  M. 
Gillespie,  A,M.    Bvo,  Muslin,  |1  25. 

Crabb's  Synonyms. 

English  Synonyms  explained.  With  copious  Illustrations  and 
Explanations,  drawn  from  the  best  Writers.  Svo,  Sheep  ex- 
tra, $2  00. 

Dickens's  CMld's  History  of  England. 

2  vols,  or  1,  16mo,  Muslin,  $1  00. 

Docliarty's  Aritlimetic. 

12mo,  Sheep  extra.    {In  press.) 

Docliarty's  Institutes  of  Algebra. 

Being  the  First  Part  of  a  Course  of  Mathematics,  designed  for 
the  use  of  Schools,  Academies,  and  Colleges.  12mo,  Sheep  ex- 
tra, 75  cents. 

Draper's  TeKt-book  on  Cliemistryj 

for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Colleges.  Carefully  revised,  with 
Additions.    With  800  Illnstrations.    12mo.  Sheep,  75  cents. 


6 


BOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 


Draper's  Text-book  on  Natural  Philosophy, 

for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Colleges.  Containing  the  most  re- 
cent Discoveries  and  Facts,  compiled  from  the  best  Authorities 
With  nearly  400  Illustrations.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

Draper's  Chemical  Organization  of  Plants. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Forces  which  produce  the  Organization  of 
Plants.    With  an  Appendix,  containing  several  Memoirs  on 
Capillary  Attraction,  Electricity,  and  the  Chemical  Action  of 
.  Light.    Engravings,    dto,  Muslin,  $2  50. 

Dnf  s  Book-keeping. 

The  Xorth  ximerican  Accountant :  embracing  Single  and  Double 
Entry  Book-keeping,  practically  adapted  to  the  Inland  and 
Maritime  Commerce  of  the  United  States.  Exemplifying  all 
Modern  Improvements  in  the  Science,  with  a  new  and  certain 
Method  of  detecting  Errors  and  proving  the  Ledger.  Embrac- 
ing an  improved  Plan  of  Instruction.  Complete  in  Two  Parts. 
8vo  School  Edition,  Half  Sheep,  15  cents;  Mercantile  Edition, 
Muslm,  $1  50. 

Findlay's  Classical  Atlas, 

to  Illustrate  Ancient  Geography.  Comprised  in  25  Maps, 
showing  the  various  Divisions  of  the  World  as  known  to  the 
Ancients.  With  an  Index  of  the  Ancient  and  Modern  J^ames 
8vo,  Half  Bound,  $3  25. 

Fowler's  English  Language, 

in  its  Elements  and  Forms.  With  a  History  of  its  Origin  and 
Development,  and  a  full  Grammar.  Designed  for  use  in  Col- 
leges and  Schools.    8vo,  Muslin,  $1  60 ;  Sheep  extra,  |1  75. 

Goldsmith's  History  of  Greece. 

Abridged  by  the  Author.  Edited  by  the  Author  of  "  Ameri- 
can Popular  Lessons."    IBmo,  Half  Sheep,  45  cents. 

Goldsmith's  History  of  Rome. 

Abridged  by  the  Author.    Edited  by  H.  W.  Herbert.  ISmo, 
Half  Sheep,  45  cents. 

Gray's  and  Adams's  Elements  of  Geology, 

Engravings.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  75  cer.ts. 

Gray's  Elements  of  Natural  Philosopliy. 

Designed  as  a  Text-book  for  Academies,  High  Schools,  and 
Colleges.  Illustrated  by  360  Wood-cuts.  12mo,  Sheep  extra, 
75  cents. 

Grisoom's  Animal  Mechanism 

and  Physiology ;  being  a  plain  and  familiar  Exposition  of  the 
Structure  and  Functions  of  the  Human  System.  Designed  for 
Families  and  Schools.  Engravings.  ISmo,  Muslin,  45  cents; 
Half  Sheep,  50  cents. 


BOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 


7 


Hackley's  Algebra. 

A  Treatise  on  Algebra.  8vo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  50.  A  School 
and  College  Edition,  8vo,  Muslin,  $1  00. 

Hackley's  Geometry. 

An  Elementary  Course  of  Geometry,  for  the  use  of  Schools  and 
Colleges.    8vo,  Sheep  extra,  15  cents. 

Hale's  History  of  the  United  States, 

from  their  first  Settlement  as  Colonies  to  the  Close  of  the  Ad- 
ministration of  Mr.  Madison  in  1817.  2  vols.  18mo,  Muslin, 
90  cents. 

Harper's  Statistical  Gazetteer  of  tlie  World, 

particularly  describing  the  United  States  of  America,  Canada, 
New  Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia.  By  J.  Calvin  Smith.  Il- 
lustrated by  Seven  Maps.    8vo,  $5  00. 

Harper's  Map  of  tlie  United  States  and  Canada. 

Showing  the  Canals,  Rail-roads,  and  principal  Stage  Eoutes. 
By  Samuel  Beeese,  AM.  On  Rollers,  States  traced,  $2  00 ; 
States  colored,  $2  00;  States  colored  and  bordered,  $2  25; 
Counties  colored,  $2  50. 

Harper's  New  York  Class-book. 

Comprising  Outlines  of  the  Geography  and  History  of  New 
York;  Biographical  Notices  of  Eminent  Individuals ;  Sketches 
of  Scenery  and  Natural  History ;  Accounts  of  Public  Institu- 
tions. Arranged  as  a  Reading-book  for  Schools.  By  William 
Russell.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  00. 

Harrison's  Latin  Grammar. 

An  Exposition  of  some  of  the  Laws  of  the  Latin  Grammar. 
12mo,  Sheep  extra,  15  cents. 

Haswell's  Engineering. 

Engineers'  and  Mechanics'  Pocket-book,  containing  United 
States  and  Foreign  Weights  and  Measures;  Tables  of  Areas 
and  Circumferences  of  Circles,  Circular  Segments,  and  Zones 
of  a  Circle;  Squares  and  Cubes,  Square  and  Cube  Roots; 
Lengths  of  Circular  and  Semi-elliptic  Arcs ;  and  Rules  of  Arith- 
metic. Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids ;  the  Mechanical 
Powers ;  Geometry,  Trigonometry,  Gravity,  Strength  of  Ma- 
terials, Water  Wheels,  Hydraulics,  Hydrostatics,  Pneumatics, 
Statics,  Dynamics,  Gunnery,  Heat,  Winding  Engines,  Tonnage, 
Shot,  Shells,  &c.  Steam  and  the  Steam  Engine ;  Combustion, 
Water,  Gunpowder,  Cables  and  Anchors,  Fuel,  Air,  Guns,  &o., 
JiQ.  Tables  of  the  Weights  of  Metals,  Pipes,  &g.  Miscellane- 
ous Notes,  Dimensions  of  Steamers,  Mills,  Motion  of  Bodies  in 
Fluids,  Orthography  of  Technical  Terms,  &c.,  cfec.  Eighth 
Edition  and  Eighteenth  Thousand.  With  Additions.  12mo, 
Pocket-book  form,  $1  25. 

Hazen's  Popular  Technology  j 

or.  Professions  and  Trades.  Illustrated  by  81  Engravings. 
ISmo,  Half  Sheep,  15  cents;  2  vols.,  Muslin,  90  cents. 


8 


BOOKS  FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 


Henry's  History  of  Philosopiiy. 

Epitome  of  the  History  of  Philosophy.  Being  the  Work  adopt- 
ed by  tlie  University  of  France  for  Instruction  in  the  Colleges 
and  High  Schools.  Translated  from  the  French,  with  Addi- 
tions, and  a  Continuation  of  the  History.  2  vols.  18mo,  Mus- 
lin, 90  cents. 

HerscliePs^  Natural  PMIosopliy. 

A  Preliminary  Discourse  on  the  Study  of  Natural  Philosophy. 
12mo,  Muslin,  60  cents. 

Eane's  Elements  of  Cliemistry; 

including  the  most  recent  Discoveries,  and  Applications  of  the 
Science  to  Medicine  and  Pharmacy,  and  to  the  Arts.  Edited 
by  John  W.  Draper,  M.D.  With  about  250  Woodcuts.  8vo, 
Muslin,  $1  50;  Sheep  extra,  $1  75. 

KeigMIey's  History  of  England, 

from  the  earliest  Period  to  1839.  With  ISTotes,  &c.,  by  an 
American.    6  vols.  18mo,  Muslin,  |2  25. 

Lee's  Elements  of  Geology, 

for  Popular  Use ;  containing  a  Description  of  the  Geological 
Formations  and  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States.  En- 
gravings.   ISmo,  Half  Sheep,  60  cents. 

Lewis's  Flatonio  Tlieology. 

Plato  contra  Atheos.  Plato  against  the  Atheists ;  or,  the  Tenth 
Book  of  the  Dialogue  on  Laws,  accompanied  with  Critical 
Notes,  and  followed  by  extended  Dissertations  on  some  of  the 
main  Points  of  the  Platonic  Philosophy  and  Theology,  espe- 
cially as  compared  with  the  Holy  Scriptures.  12mo,  Muslin, 
$1  50. 

Liddell  and  Scott's  Greek-Englisli  Lexicon, 

based  on  the  German  Work  of  Francis  Passow.  With  Cor- 
rections and  Additions,  and  the  Insertion,  in  Alphabetical  Or- 
der, of  the  Proper  Names  occurring  in  the  principal  Greek 
Authors,  by  Henry  Drisler,  M.A.  Royal  8vo,  Sheep  extra, 
$5  00. 

Loomis's  Mathematical  Series. 

Elements  of  Algebrai    For  the  use  of  Beginners.    12mo,  Sheep  ex- 
tra, 62k  cents. 

Treatise  on  Algebra.    8vo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  00. 

Elements  of  Geometry  and  Conic  Sections.     8vo,  Sheep  extra,  75* 
cents. 

Introduction  to  Practical  Astronomy,    Svo,  Sheep  extra,    {hi  press.) 

The  Recent  Progress  of  Astronomy,  especially  in  the  United  States. 
12mo,  Muslin,  $1  00. 

Elements  of  Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonometry.    8vo,  Sheep  extra, 
1 1  00. 


BOOKS   FOR   SCHOOLS   AND  COLLEGES. 


9 


Loomis's  Mathematical  Series,  continued. 

Tables  of  Logarithms  of  Numbers,  and  of  Sines  and  Tangents  for 
every  Ten  Seconds  of  the  Quadrant.    8vo,  Sheep  extra,  $1  00. 

The  Trigonometry  and  Tables,  bound  together,  may  be 
had  for  $1  50. 

Analytical  Geometry  and  Calculus.    8vo,  Sheep  extra,  %l  50. 

Lowry's  Universal  Atlas. 

Constructed  and  Engraved  from  the  most  recent  Authorities. 
Quarto,  Half  Roan,  |6  00. 

Mahan's  System  of  Intellectual  PMosopliy. 

12mo,  Muslin,  90  cents. 

Mrs.  Markham's  History  of  France, 

from  the  Conquest  of  Gaul  by  Julius  Caesar  to  the  Reign  of 
Louis  Philippe.  With  Conversations  at  the  End  of  each 
Chapter.  For  the  use  of  Young  Persons.  Edited  by  Jacob 
Abbott.    12mo,  Muslin,  $1  00. 

Maury's  Principles  of  Eloquence. 

With  an  Introduction,  by  Bishop  Potter.  18mo,  Muslin,  45 
cents. 

McClintock's  Classical  Series. 

A  First  Book  in  Latin.  Containing  Grammar  Exercises,  and  Vo- 
cabularies, on  the  Method  of  constant  Imitation  and  Repeti- 
tion. With  Summaries  of  Etymology  and  Syntax.  12mo, 
Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

A  Second  Book  in  Latin.  Containing  Syntax,  and  Reading  Les- 
sons selected  from  Csesar  and  Cicero,  with  Imitative  Exercises, 
Notes,  and  a  full  Vocabulary.  Forming  a  sufficient  Latin 
Reader.    12mo,  Sheep  extra,  '75  cents. 

A  First  Book  in  Greek.  Containing  a  full  View  of  the  Forms  of 
Words,  with  Vocabularies  and  copious  Exercises,  on  the  Meth- 
od of  constant  Imitation  and  Repetition.  12mo,  Sheep  extra, 
75  cents. 

A  Second  Book  in  Greek.  Containing  a  Syntax,  with  Reading  Les- 
sons in  Prose ;  Prosody,  and  Reading  Lessons  in  Verse.  Form- 
ing a  sufficient  Greek  Reader.  With  Notes  and  copious  Vo- 
cabulary.   12mo,  Sheep  extra,  75  cents. 

McQueen's  The  Orator's  Touchstone ; 

or.  Eloquence  Simplified.  Embracing  a  comprehensive  System 
of  Instruction  for  the  Improvement  of  the  Voice,  and  for  ad- 
vancement in  the  general  Art  of  Public  Speaking.  12mo, 
Muslin,  75  cents. 

Mill's  Logic, 

Ratiocinative  and  Inductive ;  being  a  connected  View  of  the 
Principles  of  Evidence  and  the  Methods  of  Scientific  Investi- 
gation.   8vo,  Muslin,  |1  50. 


•a 


/)..<' 


r 


o 


